Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (698 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Agents capable of inducing a total or partial loss of sensation, especially tactile sensation and pain. They may act to induce general anesthesia, in which an unconscious state is achieved, or may act locally to induce numbness or lack of sensation at a targeted site.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Anesthetic; Anesthetic Agents; Agents, Anesthetic; Anesthetic Drugs; Drugs, Anesthetic; Anesthetic Effect; Effect, Anesthetic; Anesthetic Effects.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Central Nervous System Depressants
- Narrower topics
- Anesthetics, Combined; Anesthetics, General; Anesthetics, Local
- See also
- Analgesics; Anesthesia; Adjuvants, Anesthesia
Related concepts
- Anesthesia
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 93,083 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Anesthetics” (counts retrieved 2026-10-29). 13,334 of them (14.3%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 31,849 records.
Reviews account for 10,065 records (10.8%) and meta-analyses for 1,167. Randomized controlled trials number 16,357 (17.6%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up a comparatively large share of this literature, which means many treatment questions have been tested directly.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 31,849 |
| 2000-2009 | 23,830 |
| 2010-2019 | 24,070 |
| 2020 onward | 13,334 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 10,065 | 10.8% |
| Meta-analyses | 1,167 | 1.3% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 16,357 | 17.6% |
Method: PubMed query "Anesthetics"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-29.
Reading the evidence in pharmacology
Drug evidence builds in layers: laboratory pharmacology describes how a compound acts, pharmacokinetic studies describe how the body handles it, and randomized trials test whether it helps and what harms it causes. Post-marketing surveillance and observational studies reveal rarer adverse effects but cannot prove causation. This page is educational and is not a recommendation to start, stop or change any medicine; decisions about treatment belong with a qualified clinician.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comparison of opioid-free versus opioid-based total intravenous anaesthesia in elderly patients undergoing short-duration surgery: a randomized controlled trial | 2026 | Randomized controlled trial Design not recorded in structured metadata | 7 | cc by PMID 41656873 · DOI · PMC12888356 |
| General anesthesia and depth of anesthesia (DoA) evaluation methods in laboratory animals: a comprehensive review | 2026 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 5 | cc by PMID 41843253 · DOI · PMC12995938 |
| Targeting Ferroptosis Pathways for Synaptic Protection in Sevoflurane-Induced Cognitive Impairment: A Nanomedicine Approach | 2026 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 41917795 · DOI · PMC13140902 |
Comparison of opioid-free versus opioid-based total intravenous anaesthesia in elderly patients undergoing short-duration surgery: a randomized controlled trial [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- IntroductionOlder adults who undergo short-duration surgery are vulnerable to opioid-related complications.
- Closing excerpt
- Trial registrationChinese Clinical Trial Registry, ChiCTR2500102550.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (210 words)
IntroductionOlder adults who undergo short-duration surgery are vulnerable to opioid-related complications. It is uncertain whether an opioid-free total intravenous anaesthesia (OFA) can reduce these events. We aimed to determine whether OFA reduces the incidence of major postoperative adverse events compared with standard opioid-based total intravenous anaesthesia (OBA).Patients and methodsThis single-center randomized clinical trial was conducted in China. From May to August 2025, 400 patients aged ≥60 years undergoing elective, short-duration surgery (anticipated duration of less than 90 min) were randomized 1:1 to receive either OFA (n = 200) or OBA (n = 200). The primary outcome was a composite of postoperative hypoxemia, delirium, or nausea and vomiting (PONV) within 48 h.ResultsA total of 400 randomized patients (mean [SD] age, 69.5 [7.0] years; 125 [31.3%] women). The primary composite outcome occurred in 50 patients (25.0%) in the OFA group and 87 patients (43.5%) in the OBA group (adjusted odds ratio, 0.40; 95% CI, 0.25 to 0.62; p p = .005) and longer extubation times (mean, 9.5 vs 7.2 min; p ConclusionThese findings suggest that OFA is a viable alternative to opioid-based anesthesia for improving postoperative outcomes by reducing the incidence of hypoxemia and PONV in this population, while warranting careful management of its associated side effects.Trial registrationChinese Clinical Trial Registry, ChiCTR2500102550.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41656873 · DOI · PMC12888356
General anesthesia and depth of anesthesia (DoA) evaluation methods in laboratory animals: a comprehensive review [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- In preclinical research, general anesthesia is essential for humane and feasible procedures but profoundly modulates autonomic, cardiovascular, neurological, and biochemical systems, risking bias in experimental outcomes.
- Closing excerpt
- These strategies will improve animal welfare and enhance the reproducibility and interpretability of preclinical findings.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (232 words)
In preclinical research, general anesthesia is essential for humane and feasible procedures but profoundly modulates autonomic, cardiovascular, neurological, and biochemical systems, risking bias in experimental outcomes. In this review our aim was to synthesize current knowledge on commonly used general anesthetics in laboratory animals, their mechanisms and protocols across species (mice, rats, rabbits, pigs), and evidence-based methods to evaluate depth of anesthesia (DoA). Injectable agents (ketamine with α2-agonists, barbiturates, propofol) and inhalational agents (isoflurane, sevoflurane, desflurane) act primarily via NMDA antagonism or GABA-A/glycine modulation, with distinct profiles for analgesia, hemodynamics, respiration, and recovery. Species-specific dosing and routes are summarized for small rodents, rabbits, and pigs, including practical considerations (e.g., thermoregulation, airway management, malignant hyperthermia risk). DoA assessment spans traditional reflex-based scoring and advanced monitoring. EEG, raw and processed indices (e.g., BIS), offers continuous cortical information but requires species-specific validation and cautious interpretation. Autonomic indicators (heart rate, blood pressure, respiratory patterns) and heart-rate variability provide complementary, noninvasive signals yet are confounded by drugs, ventilation, and surgical stimuli. Anesthetic choice is a major experimental variable. Reliable practice demands multimodal DoA monitoring that integrates reflexes, physiologic trends, and, where feasible, EEG, alongside rigorous, species-adapted protocols and transparent reporting. Priorities include validated EEG algorithms for nonhuman species, standardized autonomic indices, and broader adoption of awake models when compatible with scientific aims. These strategies will improve animal welfare and enhance the reproducibility and interpretability of preclinical findings.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41843253 · DOI · PMC12995938
Targeting Ferroptosis Pathways for Synaptic Protection in Sevoflurane-Induced Cognitive Impairment: A Nanomedicine Approach [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- BackgroundPostoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is an increasingly recognized neurological complication following surgery, particularly in elderly patients.
- Closing excerpt
- Further research is needed to optimize these therapeutic approaches for clinical application in POCD management.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (256 words)
BackgroundPostoperative cognitive dysfunction (POCD) is an increasingly recognized neurological complication following surgery, particularly in elderly patients. It significantly hinders recovery and impairs the quality of life. Sevoflurane, a commonly used volatile anesthetic, has been implicated in enhancing the incidence and severity of POCD. At the molecular level, synaptic dysfunction is a major contributor to cognitive decline associated with POCD. Recent studies have highlighted ferroptosis, an iron-dependent form of cell death driven by lipid peroxidation, as a critical mechanism behind synaptic damage and cognitive decline.MethodsThis review synthesizes current research on the role of ferroptosis in POCD, focusing on its impact on synaptic dysfunction. We also explore the potential of nanomedicine, particularly intelligent responsive nanodrug delivery systems, in targeting ferroptotic pathways. These nanoplatforms, with their high brain delivery efficiency and specificity, have been shown to modulate ferroptosis signaling and reduce neuronal injury, thereby potentially promoting cognitive recovery.ResultsFerroptosis plays a significant role in exacerbating cognitive deficits by disrupting synaptic membranes and mitochondria, which contribute to synaptic dysfunction. Emerging evidence suggests that interventions targeting ferroptosis pathways can mitigate these effects, offering a novel therapeutic avenue for POCD. Nanomedicine approaches, especially those utilizing responsive nanodrug delivery systems, have shown promise in effectively targeting ferroptotic pathways with high specificity, leading to reductions in synaptic injury and enhanced cognitive recovery.ConclusionFerroptosis is a key mechanism driving synaptic dysfunction and cognitive decline in POCD. Targeting ferroptotic pathways using nanomedicine-based strategies holds considerable promise for mitigating POCD and promoting cognitive recovery. Further research is needed to optimize these therapeutic approaches for clinical application in POCD management.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41917795 · DOI · PMC13140902
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Continuous intravenous perioperative lidocaine infusion for postoperative pain and recovery in adults [4]
- Research article Intravenous versus inhalational maintenance of anaesthesia for postoperative cognitive outcomes in elderly people undergoing non-cardiac surgery [5]
- Research article The effects of ketamine on dopaminergic function: meta-analysis and review of the implications for neuropsychiatric disorders [6]
- Research article Anesthetic technique and cancer outcomes: a meta-analysis of total intravenous versus volatile anesthesia [7]
- Research article Pharmacotherapy for the Prevention of Chronic Pain after Surgery in Adults: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [8]
- Research article Anesthetic Exposure During Childhood and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [9]
References
- Wei S, Zhou S, Tu J, Zhi T, Wang Y, Shen Q, et al.. Comparison of opioid-free versus opioid-based total intravenous anaesthesia in elderly patients undergoing short-duration surgery: a randomized controlled trial. . 2026. PMID 41656873 · DOI · PMC12888356
- Altınoluk T, Kazdağlı H. General anesthesia and depth of anesthesia (DoA) evaluation methods in laboratory animals: a comprehensive review. . 2026. PMID 41843253 · DOI · PMC12995938
- Zhao B, Wang C, Zhang M. Targeting Ferroptosis Pathways for Synaptic Protection in Sevoflurane-Induced Cognitive Impairment: A Nanomedicine Approach. . 2026. PMID 41917795 · DOI · PMC13140902
- Weibel S, Jelting Y, Pace NL, Helf A, Eberhart LH, Hahnenkamp K, et al.. Continuous intravenous perioperative lidocaine infusion for postoperative pain and recovery in adults. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018. PMID 29864216 · DOI · PMC6513586
- Miller D, Lewis SR, Pritchard MW, Schofield-Robinson OJ, Shelton CL, Alderson P, et al.. Intravenous versus inhalational maintenance of anaesthesia for postoperative cognitive outcomes in elderly people undergoing non-cardiac surgery. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2018. PMID 30129968 · DOI · PMC6513211
- Kokkinou M, Ashok AH, Howes OD. The effects of ketamine on dopaminergic function: meta-analysis and review of the implications for neuropsychiatric disorders. Mol Psychiatry. 2018. PMID 28972576 · DOI · PMC5754467
- Yap A, Lopez-Olivo MA, Dubowitz J, Hiller J, Riedel B, Global Onco-Anesthesia Research Collaboration Group. Anesthetic technique and cancer outcomes: a meta-analysis of total intravenous versus volatile anesthesia. Can J Anaesth. 2019. PMID 30834506 · DOI
- Carley ME, Chaparro LE, Choinière M, Kehlet H, Moore RA, Van Den Kerkhof E, et al.. Pharmacotherapy for the Prevention of Chronic Pain after Surgery in Adults: An Updated Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Anesthesiology. 2021. PMID 34237128 · DOI
- Reighard C, Junaid S, Jackson WM, Arif A, Waddington H, Whitehouse AJO, et al.. Anesthetic Exposure During Childhood and Neurodevelopmental Outcomes: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Netw Open. 2022. PMID 35708687 · DOI · PMC9204549
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-29.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.