Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (721 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A gonadotropic glycoprotein hormone produced primarily by the placenta. Similar to the pituitary luteinizing hormone in structure and function, chorionic gonadotropin is involved in maintaining the corpus luteum during pregnancy. CG consists of two noncovalently linked subunits, alpha and beta. Within a species, the alpha subunit is virtually identical to the alpha subunits of the three pituitary glycoprotein hormones (TSH, LH, and FSH), but the beta subunit is unique and confers its biological specificity (chorionic gonadotropin, beta subunit, human).
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Gonadotropin, Chorionic; Choriogonadotropin; Choriogonin; Chorulon; Biogonadil; Pregnyl; Chorionic Gonadotropin, Human; Gonadotropin, Human Chorionic.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Gonadotropins; Placental Hormones; Pregnancy Proteins
- Narrower topics
- Chorionic Gonadotropin, beta Subunit, Human; Glycoprotein Hormones, alpha Subunit
- See also
- Receptors, Gonadotropin
Related concepts
- Placenta
- Luteinizing Hormone
- Corpus Luteum
- Chorionic Gonadotropin
- Beta Subunit
- Human
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 33,479 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Chorionic Gonadotropin” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 1,859 of them (5.6%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 21,944 records.
Reviews account for 2,221 records (6.6%) and meta-analyses for 137. Randomized controlled trials number 745 (2.2%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 21,944 |
| 2000-2009 | 5,299 |
| 2010-2019 | 4,377 |
| 2020 onward | 1,859 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 2,221 | 6.6% |
| Meta-analyses | 137 | 0.4% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 745 | 2.2% |
Method: PubMed query "Chorionic Gonadotropin"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in drugs and chemicals
Studies of a chemical or drug can answer very different questions: what it is and how it behaves in cells and animals, how the body handles it, and whether it changes outcomes in people. Laboratory and animal findings often do not carry over to patients, and observational studies of exposures are confounded by who uses a substance and why. Nothing on this page is a recommendation to use, avoid, start or stop any substance or medicine; talk to a qualified clinician or pharmacist about your own situation. Check the dose, the species, the comparison group and whether a patient-relevant outcome was measured.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Human Chorionic Gonadotropin-Mediated Immune Responses That Facilitate Embryo Implantation and Placentation | 2019 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 71 | cc by PMID 31921157 · DOI · PMC6914810 |
| Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin: New Pleiotropic Functions for an "Old" Hormone During Pregnancy | 2020 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 51 | cc by PMID 32231662 · DOI · PMC7083149 |
| Human Chorionic Gonadotropin as a Pivotal Endocrine Immune Regulator Initiating and Preserving Fetal Tolerance | 2017 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 50 | cc by PMID 29039764 · DOI · PMC5666847 |
| Tailoring clinical management after embryo transfer using β-hCG levels in resource-limited settings | 2025 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 1 | cc by PMID 40594513 · DOI · PMC12217309 |
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin-Mediated Immune Responses That Facilitate Embryo Implantation and Placentation [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) serves as one of the first signals provided by the embryo to the mother.
- Closing excerpt
- The current review aims to summarize recent literature on the participation of innate and adaptive immune cells in embryo implantation and placentation with a specific focus on their regulation by hCG.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (177 words)
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) serves as one of the first signals provided by the embryo to the mother. Exactly at the time when the first step of the implantation process is initiated and the blastocyst adheres to the maternal endometrium, the embryonic tissue starts to actively secrete hCG. Shortly thereafter, the hormone can be detected in the maternal circulation where its concentration steadily increases throughout early pregnancy as it is continuously released by the forming placenta. Accumulating evidence underlines the critical function of hCG for embryo implantation and placentation. hCG not only regulates biological aspects of these early pregnancy events but also supports maternal immune cells in their function as helpers in the establishment of an adequate embryo-endometrial relationship. In view of its early presence in the maternal circulation, hCG has the potential to influence both local uterine immune cell populations as well as peripheral ones. The current review aims to summarize recent literature on the participation of innate and adaptive immune cells in embryo implantation and placentation with a specific focus on their regulation by hCG.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 31921157 · DOI · PMC6914810
Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin: New Pleiotropic Functions for an "Old" Hormone During Pregnancy [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) is the first specific molecule synthesized by the embryo.
- Closing excerpt
- In this review, we will discuss the immunological impacts of hCG during pregnancy and if this hormone might be used therapeutically.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (263 words)
Human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) is the first specific molecule synthesized by the embryo. hCG RNA is transcribed as early as the eight-cell stage, and the blastocyst produces the protein before its implantation. hCG in the uterine microenvironment binds with its cognate receptor, luteinizing hormone/choriogonadotropin receptor (LHCGR), on the endometrial surface. This binding stimulates leukemia inhibitory factor (LIF) production and inhibits interleukin-6 (IL-6) production by epithelial cells of the endometrium. These effects ensure essential help in the preparation of the endometrium for initial embryo implantation. hCG also effects angiogenic and immunomodulatory actions as reported in many articles by our laboratories and other ones. By stimulating angiogenesis and vasculogenesis, hCG provides the placenta with an adequate maternal blood supply and optimal embryo nutrition during the invasion of the uterine endometrium. The immunomodulatory properties of hCG are numerous and important for programming maternal immune tolerance toward the embryo. The reported effects of hCG on uterine NK, Treg, and B cells, three major cell populations for the maintenance of pregnancy, demonstrate the role of this embryonic signal as a crucial immune regulator in the course of pregnancy. Human embryo rejection for hCG-related immunological reasons has been studied in different ways, and a sufficient dose of hCG seems to be necessary to maintain maternal tolerance. Different teams have studied the addition of hCG in patients suffering from recurrent miscarriages or implantation failures. hCG could also have a beneficial or a negative impact on autoimmune diseases during pregnancy. In this review, we will discuss the immunological impacts of hCG during pregnancy and if this hormone might be used therapeutically.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 32231662 · DOI · PMC7083149
Human Chorionic Gonadotropin as a Pivotal Endocrine Immune Regulator Initiating and Preserving Fetal Tolerance [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The pregnancy hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), is crucially involved in processes such as implantation and placentation, two milestones of pregnancy whose successful progress is a prerequisite for adequate fetal growth.
- Closing excerpt
- This mini review focuses on how hCG modulates the adaptive arm of the immune system including dendritic cells as key regulators of adaptive immune responses.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (109 words)
The pregnancy hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), is crucially involved in processes such as implantation and placentation, two milestones of pregnancy whose successful progress is a prerequisite for adequate fetal growth. Moreover, hCG determines fetal fate by regulating maternal innate and adaptive immune responses allowing the acceptance of the foreign fetal antigens. As one of the first signals provided by the embryo to its mother, hCG has the potential to regulate very early pregnancy-driven immune responses, allowing the establishment and preservation of fetal tolerance. This mini review focuses on how hCG modulates the adaptive arm of the immune system including dendritic cells as key regulators of adaptive immune responses.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 29039764 · DOI · PMC5666847
Tailoring clinical management after embryo transfer using β-hCG levels in resource-limited settings [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Cleavage-stage embryo transfers are often the best option for patients with limited oocytes or low fertilization rates due to medical or financial constraints.
- Closing excerpt
- The study highlights β-hCG as a simple, cost-effective tool for providing early reassurance, guiding counseling, and personalizing follow-up, particularly in low-resource settings where access to fertility care remains challenging.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (172 words)
Cleavage-stage embryo transfers are often the best option for patients with limited oocytes or low fertilization rates due to medical or financial constraints. This study analyzed 424 women undergoing β-hCG testing 14 days after embryo transfer at a tertiary care center in India. Pregnancy outcomes were classified as no live births (biochemical pregnancies, ectopic pregnancies, miscarriages) or live births (single/multiple births). Higher β-hCG levels were associated with greater chances of live birth but also an increased risk of complications like preterm birth and preeclampsia, particularly in multiple pregnancies. A β-hCG threshold of 468 mIU/mL was identified as the optimal predictor of live birth, with 75% sensitivity and 72% specificity. Receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve analysis confirmed its strong predictive value. By reducing the need for frequent monitoring, this single-test approach helps ease the emotional, financial, and logistical burdens patients face during IVF treatment. The study highlights β-hCG as a simple, cost-effective tool for providing early reassurance, guiding counseling, and personalizing follow-up, particularly in low-resource settings where access to fertility care remains challenging.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40594513 · DOI · PMC12217309
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Clinical practice. Ectopic pregnancy [5]
- Research article Human chorionic gonadotropin in cancer [6]
- Research article Thyrotropic action of human chorionic gonadotropin [7]
- Research article Is progesterone elevation on the day of human chorionic gonadotrophin administration associated with the probability of pregnancy in in vitro fertilization? A systematic review and meta-analysis [8]
- Research article Human chorionic gonadotropin: a hormone with immunological and angiogenic properties [9]
- Research article Physiological and pathological aspects of the effect of human chorionic gonadotropin on the thyroid [10]
References
- Schumacher A, Zenclussen AC. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin-Mediated Immune Responses That Facilitate Embryo Implantation and Placentation. . 2019. PMID 31921157 · DOI · PMC6914810
- Gridelet V, Perrier d'Hauterive S, Polese B, Foidart JM, Nisolle M, Geenen V. Human Chorionic Gonadotrophin: New Pleiotropic Functions for an "Old" Hormone During Pregnancy. . 2020. PMID 32231662 · DOI · PMC7083149
- Schumacher A. Human Chorionic Gonadotropin as a Pivotal Endocrine Immune Regulator Initiating and Preserving Fetal Tolerance. . 2017. PMID 29039764 · DOI · PMC5666847
- Dhar S, Adiga P, Mundkur A, Poojari VG, Kumar P. Tailoring clinical management after embryo transfer using β-hCG levels in resource-limited settings. . 2025. PMID 40594513 · DOI · PMC12217309
- Barnhart KT. Clinical practice. Ectopic pregnancy. N Engl J Med. 2009. PMID 19625718 · DOI
- Stenman UH, Alfthan H, Hotakainen K. Human chorionic gonadotropin in cancer. Clin Biochem. 2004. PMID 15234236 · DOI
- Yoshimura M, Hershman JM. Thyrotropic action of human chorionic gonadotropin. Thyroid. 1995. PMID 8563483 · DOI
- Venetis CA, Kolibianakis EM, Papanikolaou E, Bontis J, Devroey P, Tarlatzis BC. Is progesterone elevation on the day of human chorionic gonadotrophin administration associated with the probability of pregnancy in in vitro fertilization? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update. 2007. PMID 17405832 · DOI
- Tsampalas M, Gridelet V, Berndt S, Foidart JM, Geenen V, Perrier d'Hauterive S. Human chorionic gonadotropin: a hormone with immunological and angiogenic properties. J Reprod Immunol. 2010. PMID 20227765 · DOI
- Hershman JM. Physiological and pathological aspects of the effect of human chorionic gonadotropin on the thyroid. Best Pract Res Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004. PMID 15157839 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.