Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (613 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Inflammation of the brain due to infection, autoimmune processes, toxins, and other conditions. Viral infections (see encephalitis, viral) are a relatively frequent cause of this condition.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Brain Inflammation; Inflammation, Brain; Brain Inflammations; Rasmussen Syndrome; Encephalitis, Rasmussen; Rasmussen Encephalitis; Rasmussen's Syndrome.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Brain Diseases; Neuroinflammatory Diseases
- Narrower topics
- Anti-N-Methyl-D-Aspartate Receptor Encephalitis; Cerebral Ventriculitis; Infectious Encephalitis; Limbic Encephalitis; Meningoencephalitis
- See also
- Encephalomyelitis
Related concepts
- Brain
- Encephalitis
- Viral
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 58,132 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Encephalitis” (counts retrieved 2026-10-29). 9,711 of them (16.7%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 22,961 records.
Reviews account for 6,540 records (11.3%) and meta-analyses for 129. Randomized controlled trials number 189 (0.3%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 22,961 |
| 2000-2009 | 10,735 |
| 2010-2019 | 14,725 |
| 2020 onward | 9,711 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 6,540 | 11.3% |
| Meta-analyses | 129 | 0.2% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 189 | 0.3% |
Method: PubMed query "Encephalitis"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-29.
Reading the evidence in neuroscience
Neuroscience draws on tools with different strengths: cellular and animal work can manipulate circuits directly, while human imaging and electrophysiology observe the living brain at lower resolution. Small imaging studies are prone to false positives, and findings in animals do not always carry over to people. Clinical neurology and psychiatry rely on trials and cohort studies whose outcomes are often symptom scales. Check the species, the sample size, how the outcome was measured and whether results were replicated.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Genomic Epidemiology of West Nile Virus in Paris | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 5 | cc by PMID 41697700 · DOI · PMC12910402 |
| CSF-Compartmentalized Antibody Glycoprofiles in NMDAR Encephalitis Associate with Etiology and Functional Recovery | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 5 | cc by PMID 41708521 · DOI · PMC13206183 |
| Endothelial Dysfunction: Insights into Systemic Lupus Erythematosus-associated Cardiovascular Disease and Neuropsychiatric Manifestations | 2026 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 4 | cc by PMID 41795008 · DOI · PMC12967630 |
Genomic Epidemiology of West Nile Virus in Paris [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ImportanceWest Nile virus (WNV), a mosquito-borne orthoflavivirus, represents an increasing public health threat in Europe.
- Closing excerpt
- Strengthened genomic surveillance across ecological and administrative boundaries would be essential to anticipate further viral spread, inform response strategies, and protect populations at risk.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (332 words)
ImportanceWest Nile virus (WNV), a mosquito-borne orthoflavivirus, represents an increasing public health threat in Europe. In July 2025, WNV lineage 2 (WNV-L2) was associated with the first autochthonous cases ever detected in the metropolitan area around Paris, France; understanding the dispersal dynamics and geographic origin of these emergence events is critical for public health preparedness.ObjectivesTo characterize the spatial and temporal dynamics of WNV circulation in France from 2022 to 2025 and to determine the origin of the virus lineages responsible for the 2025 emergence in the Paris metropolitan area.Design, setting, and participantsThis study was a genomic epidemiology assessment combining human, veterinary, and entomological monitoring, with viral genome sequencing and time-resolved, bayesian phylogenetic analysis. Surveillance was conducted across metropolitan France, with a focus on areas with documented WNV circulation (Eastern and Western Mediterranean, South Atlantic, and Paris). Surveillance included patients with confirmed WNV infection, avian and equine cases, and mosquito collections.ExposuresNatural exposure to WNV through mosquito vectors in affected areas.Main outcomes and measuresPhylogenetic relationships between emergence events across regions in France were inferred using a bayesian approach.ResultsGenomic data from this epidemiological assessment encompassed 52 WNV-positive samples (6 human, 21 veterinary, and 25 entomological samples). WNV-L2 was the only lineage detected in France between 2022 and 2025. In 2024, Western Mediterranean strains were closely related to those from 2023 from the French South Atlantic area, suggesting west-to-south introduction, whereas Eastern Mediterranean strains represented genetically distinct clades associated with Northern Italy. The phylogenetic analysis of 2025 WNV sequences from the Paris area revealed that the outbreak virus strains all grouped together and originated from the L2 clade of sequences from the South Atlantic area in the 2023 to 2024 period.Conclusions and relevanceIn this study, genomic data from an epidemiologic assessment of 52 WNV-positive samples highlight the combined influence of local virus maintenance and long-distance dispersal in shaping WNV circulation in France. Strengthened genomic surveillance across ecological and administrative boundaries would be essential to anticipate further viral spread, inform response strategies, and protect populations at risk.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41697700 · DOI · PMC12910402
CSF-Compartmentalized Antibody Glycoprofiles in NMDAR Encephalitis Associate with Etiology and Functional Recovery [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ObjectiveTo characterize Fc-glycosylation profiles in patients with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis (NMDARe) and assess their association with antibody compartmentalization (cerebrospinal fluid [CSF] vs serum), disease triggers (viral, tumor-related or idiopathic), and 1-year outcomes.
- Closing excerpt
- ANN NEUROL 2026;99:1468-1479.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (159 words)
ObjectiveTo characterize Fc-glycosylation profiles in patients with anti-N-methyl-D-aspartate receptor encephalitis (NMDARe) and assess their association with antibody compartmentalization (cerebrospinal fluid [CSF] vs serum), disease triggers (viral, tumor-related or idiopathic), and 1-year outcomes.MethodsWe analyzed immunoglobulin (Ig) G1 and IgG2/3 Fc-glycosylation by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry in paired serum/CSF samples from 50 age- and sex-matched patients with NMDARe identified in IDIBAPS/Hospital Clinic of Barcelona database and the Spanish study on herpes encephalitis. Patients were classified by disease trigger as post-herpetic, tumor-related, or idiopathic. One-year outcomes were defined as good (modified Rankin Scale [mRS] ≤2) or poor (≥3). Fc glycoprofiles were quantified for fucosylation, sialylation, galactosylation, and bisecting N-acetylglucosamination.ResultsAcross IgG subclasses (IgG1-3), CSF antibodies showed significantly reduced sialylation and galactosylation compared to serum (p InterpretationIn NMDARe, CSF Fc-glycosylation profiles are both compartment- and trigger-specific. Because glycan signatures shape innate immune interactions (e.g., with NK cells), these findings highlight distinct pathogenic mechanisms and support Fc-glycosylation profiling as a potential prognostic biomarker. ANN NEUROL 2026;99:1468-1479.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41708521 · DOI · PMC13206183
Endothelial Dysfunction: Insights into Systemic Lupus Erythematosus-associated Cardiovascular Disease and Neuropsychiatric Manifestations [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and neuropsychiatric manifestations are common in patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), often sharing a vascular origin with endothelial dysfunction central to their development.
- Closing excerpt
- Finally, we discuss emerging therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring endothelial function to improve cardiovascular and neuropsychiatric outcomes in SLE.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (122 words)
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) and neuropsychiatric manifestations are common in patients with Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE), often sharing a vascular origin with endothelial dysfunction central to their development. The endothelium plays a critical role in regulating systemic and cerebral blood flow and influencing end-organ damage in SLE. In this review, we summarize foundational and recent studies linking vascular dysfunction to CVD and neuropsychiatric outcomes, emphasizing the roles of endothelial activation, endothelial progenitor cells, blood-brain barrier dysfunction, and vascular autoantibodies. We also highlight animal models that facilitate the study of vascular and cerebral manifestations, clarifying the interconnected contributions of endothelial health to SLE-related organ damage. Finally, we discuss emerging therapeutic strategies aimed at restoring endothelial function to improve cardiovascular and neuropsychiatric outcomes in SLE.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41795008 · DOI · PMC12967630
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Use and Safety of Immunotherapeutic Management of N-Methyl-d-Aspartate Receptor Antibody Encephalitis: A Meta-analysis [4]
- Research article Diagnostic test accuracy of the BioFire® FilmArray® meningitis/encephalitis panel: a systematic review and meta-analysis [5]
- Research article Encephalitis as a neurological complication of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis of incidence, outcomes, and predictors [6]
- Research article Brain 18F-FDG PET for the diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis: a systematic review and a meta-analysis [7]
- Research article Efficacy and safety of rituximab in autoimmune encephalitis: A meta-analysis [8]
- Research article Prevalence of chronic comorbidities in dengue fever and West Nile virus: A systematic review and meta-analysis [9]
References
- Klitting R, Gondard M, Pezzi L, Migné CV, Bellone R, L'Ambert G, et al.. Genomic Epidemiology of West Nile Virus in Paris. . 2026. PMID 41697700 · DOI · PMC12910402
- Marmolejo L, Papi C, Milano C, Aguilar E, Maudes E, Duvnjak Orešković I, et al.. CSF-Compartmentalized Antibody Glycoprofiles in NMDAR Encephalitis Associate with Etiology and Functional Recovery. . 2026. PMID 41708521 · DOI · PMC13206183
- Butler HM, Zehntner ME, Van Beusecum JP. Endothelial Dysfunction: Insights into Systemic Lupus Erythematosus-associated Cardiovascular Disease and Neuropsychiatric Manifestations. . 2026. PMID 41795008 · DOI · PMC12967630
- Nosadini M, Eyre M, Molteni E, Thomas T, Irani SR, Dalmau J, et al.. Use and Safety of Immunotherapeutic Management of N-Methyl-d-Aspartate Receptor Antibody Encephalitis: A Meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2021. PMID 34542573 · DOI · PMC8453367
- Tansarli GS, Chapin KC. Diagnostic test accuracy of the BioFire® FilmArray® meningitis/encephalitis panel: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin Microbiol Infect. 2020. PMID 31760115 · DOI
- Siow I, Lee KS, Zhang JJY, Saffari SE, Ng A. Encephalitis as a neurological complication of COVID-19: A systematic review and meta-analysis of incidence, outcomes, and predictors. Eur J Neurol. 2021. PMID 33982853 · DOI · PMC8239820
- Bordonne M, Chawki MB, Doyen M, Kas A, Guedj E, Tyvaert L, et al.. Brain 18F-FDG PET for the diagnosis of autoimmune encephalitis: a systematic review and a meta-analysis. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2021. PMID 33677643 · DOI
- Nepal G, Shing YK, Yadav JK, Rehrig JH, Ojha R, Huang DY, et al.. Efficacy and safety of rituximab in autoimmune encephalitis: A meta-analysis. Acta Neurol Scand. 2020. PMID 32484900 · DOI
- Badawi A, Velummailum R, Ryoo SG, Senthinathan A, Yaghoubi S, Vasileva D, et al.. Prevalence of chronic comorbidities in dengue fever and West Nile virus: A systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One. 2018. PMID 29990356 · DOI · PMC6039036
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-29.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.