Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (536 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
The system of glands that release their secretions (hormones) directly into the circulatory system. In addition to the endocrine glands, included are the chromaffin system and the neurosecretory systems.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Endocrine Systems; System, Endocrine; Systems, Endocrine.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Anatomy Category
- Narrower topics
- Chromaffin System; Endocrine Glands; Enteroendocrine Cells; Neurosecretory Systems
Related concepts
- Endocrine Glands
- Chromaffin System
- Neurosecretory Systems
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 493,278 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Endocrine System” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 48,263 of them (9.8%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 286,730 records.
Reviews account for 47,305 records (9.6%) and meta-analyses for 983. Randomized controlled trials number 4,209 (0.9%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 286,730 |
| 2000-2009 | 77,212 |
| 2010-2019 | 81,073 |
| 2020 onward | 48,263 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 47,305 | 9.6% |
| Meta-analyses | 983 | 0.2% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 4,209 | 0.9% |
Method: PubMed query "Endocrine System"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Resolving human α versus β cell fate allocation for the generation of stem cell-derived islets | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 42426000 · DOI · PMC13351057 |
| Ovarian Extracellular Matrix Mechanics Regulate Oocyte-Follicle Interactions During Female Reproductive Aging | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 2 | cc by PMID 42593156 · DOI · PMC13471645 |
| Polystyrene Microplastic Exposure Adversely Affects Oocyte Quality and Ovary Health Status in Mytilus galloprovincialis | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 2 | cc by PMID 42450090 · DOI · PMC13362473 |
Resolving human α versus β cell fate allocation for the generation of stem cell-derived islets [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Stem cell-derived glucagon-(α) and insulin-producing (β) cells allow to engineer in vitro biomimetics of islet of Langerhans, the micro-organ controlling glycemia; however, a knowledge gap in the mechanism by which human stem cell-derived α and β cells are specified persists.
- Closing excerpt
- Studying mechanisms of endocrinogenesis and fate segregation enables the engineering of islets in vitro, and has broader implications for cell-replacement therapy, disease modelling and drug screening.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (166 words)
Stem cell-derived glucagon-(α) and insulin-producing (β) cells allow to engineer in vitro biomimetics of islet of Langerhans, the micro-organ controlling glycemia; however, a knowledge gap in the mechanism by which human stem cell-derived α and β cells are specified persists. Mouse studies postulated that Aristaless Related homeobox (Arx) and Paired box 4 (Pax4) transcription factors cross-inhibit each other in endocrine progenitors to promote α/β fate allocation, respectively. To test this model in human, we combine lineage labelling with single-cell multiomic analysis in our newly generated ARXCFP/CFP; PAX4mCherry/mCherry knock-in induced pluripotent stem cell reporter line. Lineage tracing, proteomic and gene regulatory network analysis and potency assays reveal a human specific regulation of α/β cell fate allocation. Pharmacological perturbations previously proposed to trigger α-to-β transdifferentiation or identified by our gene regulatory network lead to enhanced endocrine induction and directed α/β cell fate. Studying mechanisms of endocrinogenesis and fate segregation enables the engineering of islets in vitro, and has broader implications for cell-replacement therapy, disease modelling and drug screening.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42426000 · DOI · PMC13351057
Ovarian Extracellular Matrix Mechanics Regulate Oocyte-Follicle Interactions During Female Reproductive Aging [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Female reproductive aging is associated with ovarian functional decline, leading to infertility.
- Closing excerpt
- These findings provide mechanistic insight into how changes in ECM mechanics contribute to ovarian aging functional decline and reveal potential therapeutic targets to counter fertility loss associated with tissue aging and fibrosis.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (182 words)
Female reproductive aging is associated with ovarian functional decline, leading to infertility. During aging, biochemical and biophysical changes in the ovarian extracellular matrix (ECM) occur, yet how these properties affect follicle growth and oocyte quality remains poorly understood. Here we describe spatiotemporal changes in the ovarian ECM with age using mass spectrometry, immunohistochemistry, and nanoindentation. While follicle stiffness remains unchanged, stromal matrix remodeling is associated with a ~2.5-fold increase in stiffness. To understand how this increase in stromal stiffness affects age-related follicular dysfunction, isolated young follicles were cultured in soft and stiff hydrogels mimicking young and aged ovarian stromal stiffness, respectively. Higher stiffness lead to a decrease in granulosa cell (GC) proliferation, oocyte quality, and GC-oocyte interactions mediated via transzonal projections (TZPs). RNA-seq revealed TGF-β signaling as a major pathway affected by stiffness, and activation of TGF-β signaling through Smad7 silencing rescued TZP formation and oocyte quality in stiff matrix. These findings provide mechanistic insight into how changes in ECM mechanics contribute to ovarian aging functional decline and reveal potential therapeutic targets to counter fertility loss associated with tissue aging and fibrosis.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42593156 · DOI · PMC13471645
Polystyrene Microplastic Exposure Adversely Affects Oocyte Quality and Ovary Health Status in Mytilus galloprovincialis [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Microplastics pose a growing threat to marine ecosystems as they can accumulate in aquatic organisms, interfering with essential physiological processes including reproduction.
- Closing excerpt
- galloprovincialis, highlighting their vulnerability.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (188 words)
Microplastics pose a growing threat to marine ecosystems as they can accumulate in aquatic organisms, interfering with essential physiological processes including reproduction. This study analyzed the effects of short-term exposure (48 h) to two concentrations (0.5 and 1 µg/mL) of 5 µm diameter polystyrene microplastic bead particles in female Mytilus galloprovincialis mussels, a bioindicator species of the Mediterranean Sea. Histological analyses revealed progressive oocyte degeneration and the development of hypertrophic PAS-positive mucous cells, indicative of a stress response, in a dose-dependent manner. Changes in hemocyte classes, which are major effectors of bivalve immunity, were evidenced by the May-Grünwald Giemsa reaction. Biochemical data showed that microplastics increased levels of stress proteins, such as HSP70 and p53, and altered the composition of ovarian glycoproteins. Metabolomic analysis based on 1H NMR spectrometry revealed significant alterations in metabolites involved in energy (glucose, glycogen, and malonate) and amino acid (branched-chain amino acids arginine, glycine, glutamate, histidine, betaine, and choline) metabolism, suggesting impairment to bioenergetic and antioxidant pathways. Overall, these results suggest that even short-term exposure to polystyrene microplastic beads can alter the ovarian function and metabolism of female M. galloprovincialis, highlighting their vulnerability.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42450090 · DOI · PMC13362473
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Cortisol stress reactivity across psychiatric disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis [4]
- Research article HPA axis and aging in depression: systematic review and meta-analysis [5]
- Research article Impact of type 2 diabetes susceptibility variants on quantitative glycemic traits reveals mechanistic heterogeneity [6]
- Research article The HPA axis in bipolar disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis [7]
- Research article Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Agonists During Chemotherapy for Preservation of Ovarian Function and Fertility in Premenopausal Patients With Early Breast Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Individual Patient-Level Data [8]
- Research article Association of maternal thyroid function with birthweight: a systematic review and individual-participant data meta-analysis [9]
References
- Akgün Canan M, Cozzitorto C, Sterr M, Saber L, Setyono ESA, Dema A, et al.. Resolving human α versus β cell fate allocation for the generation of stem cell-derived islets. . 2026. PMID 42426000 · DOI · PMC13351057
- Shen X, Wang H, Cao G, Lee Y, Zhu J, Wang LC, et al.. Ovarian Extracellular Matrix Mechanics Regulate Oocyte-Follicle Interactions During Female Reproductive Aging. . 2026. PMID 42593156 · DOI · PMC13471645
- Chianese T, Galati M, Cappello T, Maisano M, Balsamo S, Locascio A, et al.. Polystyrene Microplastic Exposure Adversely Affects Oocyte Quality and Ovary Health Status in Mytilus galloprovincialis. . 2026. PMID 42450090 · DOI · PMC13362473
- Zorn JV, Schür RR, Boks MP, Kahn RS, Joëls M, Vinkers CH. Cortisol stress reactivity across psychiatric disorders: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2017. PMID 28012291 · DOI
- Belvederi Murri M, Pariante C, Mondelli V, Masotti M, Atti AR, Mellacqua Z, et al.. HPA axis and aging in depression: systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2014. PMID 24495607 · DOI
- Dimas AS, Lagou V, Barker A, Knowles JW, Mägi R, Hivert MF, et al.. Impact of type 2 diabetes susceptibility variants on quantitative glycemic traits reveals mechanistic heterogeneity. Diabetes. 2014. PMID 24296717 · DOI · PMC4030103
- Belvederi Murri M, Prestia D, Mondelli V, Pariante C, Patti S, Olivieri B, et al.. The HPA axis in bipolar disorder: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 2016. PMID 26547798 · DOI
- Lambertini M, Moore HCF, Leonard RCF, Loibl S, Munster P, Bruzzone M, et al.. Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone Agonists During Chemotherapy for Preservation of Ovarian Function and Fertility in Premenopausal Patients With Early Breast Cancer: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Individual Patient-Level Data. J Clin Oncol. 2018. PMID 29718793 · DOI · PMC6804855
- Derakhshan A, Peeters RP, Taylor PN, Bliddal S, Carty DM, Meems M, et al.. Association of maternal thyroid function with birthweight: a systematic review and individual-participant data meta-analysis. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2020. PMID 32445737 · DOI · PMC8168324
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.