Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (732 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
The semi-permeable outer structure of a red blood cell. It is known as a red cell 'ghost' after hemolysis.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Erythrocyte Membranes; Membrane, Erythrocyte; Red Cell Ghost; Ghost, Red Cell; Red Cell Ghosts; Erythrocyte Ghost; Erythrocyte Ghosts; Ghost, Erythrocyte.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Erythrocytes; Cell Membrane
Related concepts
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 20,228 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Erythrocyte Membrane” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 662 of them (3.3%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 14,986 records.
Reviews account for 1,280 records (6.3%) and meta-analyses for 4. Randomized controlled trials number 188 (0.9%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 14,986 |
| 2000-2009 | 2,773 |
| 2010-2019 | 1,807 |
| 2020 onward | 662 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 1,280 | 6.3% |
| Meta-analyses | 4 | 0.0% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 188 | 0.9% |
Method: PubMed query "Erythrocyte Membrane"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
Red blood cell membrane-enveloped O2 self-supplementing biomimetic nanoparticles for tumor imaging-guided enhanced sonodynamic therapy [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Non-invasive sonodynamic therapy (SDT) was developed because of its advantages of high penetration depth and low side effects; however, tumor hypoxia greatly restricts its therapeutic effect.
- Closing excerpt
- In this study, we integrated the advantages of the natural enzyme system and SDT to develop a novel approach for effective non-invasive treatment of cancer.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (211 words)
Non-invasive sonodynamic therapy (SDT) was developed because of its advantages of high penetration depth and low side effects; however, tumor hypoxia greatly restricts its therapeutic effect. In this study, we aimed to develop ideal O2 self-supplementing nanoparticles for imaging-guided enhanced sonodynamic therapy of tumors with the adept coalescence of biology with nanotechnology. Methods: Based on the natural enzyme system of red blood cells (RBC), biomimetic nanoparticles (QD@P)Rs were fabricated by encapsulating Ag2S quantum dots (QD) in RBC vesicle membranes. The anti-tumor drug PEITC was employed to increase the intracellular H2O2 concentration in tumor cells. Results:In vitro and in vivo experiments demonstrated excellent biocompatibility and prolonged blood circulation of (QD@P)Rs. Following oral administration of PEITC in mice to improve the H2O2 concentration, the enzyme in the nanoprobe catalyzed endogenous H2O2 to increase O2 content and effectively alleviate tumor hypoxia. Triggered by ultrasound under the guidance of fluorescence imaging, (QD@P)Rs generated reactive oxygen species (ROS) to induce tumor cell death, and the increased content of O2 significantly enhanced the effect of SDT. Conclusion: Ag2S QDs were used, for the first time, as a sonosensitizer in the SDT field. In this study, we integrated the advantages of the natural enzyme system and SDT to develop a novel approach for effective non-invasive treatment of cancer.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 31903156 · DOI · PMC6929970
The fluid membrane determines mechanics of erythrocyte extracellular vesicles and is softened in hereditary spherocytosis [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are widely studied regarding their role in cell-to-cell communication and disease, as well as for applications as biomarkers or drug delivery vehicles.
- Closing excerpt
- These results shed light on the mechanism and effects of EV budding and might explain the reported increase in vesiculation of RBCs in HS patients.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (150 words)
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are widely studied regarding their role in cell-to-cell communication and disease, as well as for applications as biomarkers or drug delivery vehicles. EVs contain membrane and intraluminal proteins, affecting their structure and thereby likely their functioning. Here, we use atomic force microscopy for mechanical characterization of erythrocyte, or red blood cell (RBC), EVs from healthy individuals and from patients with hereditary spherocytosis (HS) due to ankyrin deficiency. While these EVs are packed with proteins, their response to indentation resembles that of fluid liposomes lacking proteins. The bending modulus of RBC EVs of healthy donors is ~15 kbT, similar to the RBC membrane. Surprisingly, whereas RBCs become more rigid in HS, patient EVs have a significantly (~40%) lower bending modulus than donor EVs. These results shed light on the mechanism and effects of EV budding and might explain the reported increase in vesiculation of RBCs in HS patients.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 30470753 · DOI · PMC6251882
Band 3 Erythrocyte Membrane Protein Acts as Redox Stress Sensor Leading to Its Phosphorylation by p (72) Syk [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- In erythrocytes, the regulation of the redox sensitive Tyr phosphorylation of band 3 and its functions are still partially defined.
- Closing excerpt
- Our data suggest that band 3 acts as redox sensor regulating its own phosphorylation and that hemichromes leading to the protracted phosphorylation of band 3 may trigger a cascade of events finally leading to hemolysis.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (198 words)
In erythrocytes, the regulation of the redox sensitive Tyr phosphorylation of band 3 and its functions are still partially defined. A role of band 3 oxidation in regulating its own phosphorylation has been previously suggested. The current study provides evidences to support this hypothesis: (i) in intact erythrocytes, at 2 mM concentration of GSH, band 3 oxidation, and phosphorylation, Syk translocation to the membrane and Syk phosphorylation responded to the same micromolar concentrations of oxidants showing identical temporal variations; (ii) the Cys residues located in the band 3 cytoplasmic domain are 20-fold more reactive than GSH; (iii) disulfide linked band 3 cytoplasmic domain docks Syk kinase; (iv) protein Tyr phosphatases are poorly inhibited at oxidant concentrations leading to massive band 3 oxidation and phosphorylation. We also observed that hemichromes binding to band 3 determined its irreversible oxidation and phosphorylation, progressive hemolysis, and serine hyperphosphorylation of different cytoskeleton proteins. Syk inhibitor suppressed the phosphorylation of band 3 also preventing serine phosphorylation changes and hemolysis. Our data suggest that band 3 acts as redox sensor regulating its own phosphorylation and that hemichromes leading to the protracted phosphorylation of band 3 may trigger a cascade of events finally leading to hemolysis.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 27034738 · DOI · PMC4806680
RBC Membrane-Camouflaged Nanosystem-Mediated Synergistic Drug Combination for Enhanced Anti-Tumor Therapy [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Achieving direct delivery of drugs to the tumor site is a prerequisite for successful drug development, necessitating that drug molecules be cell permeable.
- Closing excerpt
- Overall, the biomimetic nanosystem realizes enhanced drug combination therapy with high-level biosafety, which provides a facile strategy to improve the clinical application of CPPs-based drug combinations.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (173 words)
Achieving direct delivery of drugs to the tumor site is a prerequisite for successful drug development, necessitating that drug molecules be cell permeable. Numerous studies have shown that cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) can augment the efficacy of various therapeutic agents by enhancing cellular uptake, prompting their advancement into preclinical studies. However, the non-specificity and cationic properties of CPPs impede their clinical application. Attributed to the easily accessible capacity and excellent biocompatibility of red blood cells (RBC), herein, an RBC membrane camouflaged, cell-penetrating peptides R8-(RRRRRRRR)based drug delivery system is constructed to achieve a synergistic combination of natural compounds triptolide (TP) and celastrol (Cel), thus precisely inducing tumor inhibition. The RBC membrane camouflaged nanosystem escaped from the reticuloendothelial system (RES) and is endocytosed by tumor cells mediated by R8. Released TP and Cel-induced tumor cell apoptosis, reducing tumor metastasis invasion and triggering autophagy disorder in breast cancer and liver cancer. Overall, the biomimetic nanosystem realizes enhanced drug combination therapy with high-level biosafety, which provides a facile strategy to improve the clinical application of CPPs-based drug combinations.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40331462 · DOI · PMC12506840
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Red cell membrane: past, present, and future [5]
- Research article The membrane skeleton of human erythrocytes and its implications for more complex cells [6]
- Research article Mechanical properties of the red cell membrane in relation to molecular structure and genetic defects [7]
- Research article Structure and function of the cytoplasmic domain of band 3: center of erythrocyte membrane-peripheral protein interactions [8]
- Research article Anatomy of the red cell membrane skeleton: unanswered questions [9]
- Research article Membrane transport in the malaria-infected erythrocyte [10]
References
- Li C, Yang XQ, An J, Cheng K, Hou XL, Zhang XS, et al.. Red blood cell membrane-enveloped O2 self-supplementing biomimetic nanoparticles for tumor imaging-guided enhanced sonodynamic therapy. . 2020. PMID 31903156 · DOI · PMC6929970
- Vorselen D, van Dommelen SM, Sorkin R, Piontek MC, Schiller J, Döpp ST, et al.. The fluid membrane determines mechanics of erythrocyte extracellular vesicles and is softened in hereditary spherocytosis. . 2018. PMID 30470753 · DOI · PMC6251882
- Pantaleo A, Ferru E, Pau MC, Khadjavi A, Mandili G, Mattè A, et al.. Band 3 Erythrocyte Membrane Protein Acts as Redox Stress Sensor Leading to Its Phosphorylation by p (72) Syk. . 2016. PMID 27034738 · DOI · PMC4806680
- Cheng Q, Zhong X, Deng L, He X, Luo M, Wang R, et al.. RBC Membrane-Camouflaged Nanosystem-Mediated Synergistic Drug Combination for Enhanced Anti-Tumor Therapy. . 2025. PMID 40331462 · DOI · PMC12506840
- Mohandas N, Gallagher PG. Red cell membrane: past, present, and future. Blood. 2008. PMID 18988878 · DOI · PMC2582001
- Bennett V. The membrane skeleton of human erythrocytes and its implications for more complex cells. Annu Rev Biochem. 1985. PMID 3161450 · DOI
- Mohandas N, Evans E. Mechanical properties of the red cell membrane in relation to molecular structure and genetic defects. Annu Rev Biophys Biomol Struct. 1994. PMID 7919799 · DOI
- Low PS. Structure and function of the cytoplasmic domain of band 3: center of erythrocyte membrane-peripheral protein interactions. Biochim Biophys Acta. 1986. PMID 2943319 · DOI
- Lux SE. Anatomy of the red cell membrane skeleton: unanswered questions. Blood. 2016. PMID 26537302 · DOI
- Kirk K. Membrane transport in the malaria-infected erythrocyte. Physiol Rev. 2001. PMID 11274338 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.