Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (720 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A process of complicated morphogenetic cell movements that reorganizes a bilayer embryo into one with three germ layers and specific orientation (dorsal/ventral; anterior/posterior). Gastrulation describes the germ layer development of a non-mammalian blastula or that of a mammalian blastocyst.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Embryonic Development
Related concepts
- Germ Layers
- Blastula
- Blastocyst
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 1,483 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Gastrulation” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 513 of them (34.6%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is 2010-2019 with 778 records.
Reviews account for 205 records (13.8%) and meta-analyses for 0. Randomized controlled trials number 1 (0.1%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 0 |
| 2000-2009 | 195 |
| 2010-2019 | 778 |
| 2020 onward | 513 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 205 | 13.8% |
| Meta-analyses | 0 | 0.0% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 1 | 0.1% |
Method: PubMed query "Gastrulation"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Single-Cell Landscape of Transcriptional Heterogeneity and Cell Fate Decisions during Mouse Early Gastrulation | 2017 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 334 | cc by PMID 28768204 · DOI · PMC5554778 |
| Embryo model completes gastrulation to neurulation and organogenesis | 2022 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 218 | cc by PMID 36007540 · DOI · PMC9534772 |
| Early patterning and specification of cardiac progenitors in gastrulating mesoderm | 2014 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 210 | cc by PMID 25296024 · DOI · PMC4356145 |
| Early coordination of cell migration and cardiac fate determination during mammalian gastrulation | 2025 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 6 | cc by PMID 40360834 · DOI · PMC12170898 |
Single-Cell Landscape of Transcriptional Heterogeneity and Cell Fate Decisions during Mouse Early Gastrulation [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The mouse inner cell mass (ICM) segregates into the epiblast and primitive endoderm (PrE) lineages coincident with implantation of the embryo.
- Closing excerpt
- Our study systematically charts transcriptional noise and uncovers molecular processes associated with early lineage decisions.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (153 words)
The mouse inner cell mass (ICM) segregates into the epiblast and primitive endoderm (PrE) lineages coincident with implantation of the embryo. The epiblast subsequently undergoes considerable expansion of cell numbers prior to gastrulation. To investigate underlying regulatory principles, we performed systematic single-cell RNA sequencing (seq) of conceptuses from E3.5 to E6.5. The epiblast shows reactivation and subsequent inactivation of the X chromosome, with Zfp57 expression associated with reactivation and inactivation together with other candidate regulators. At E6.5, the transition from epiblast to primitive streak is linked with decreased expression of polycomb subunits, suggesting a key regulatory role. Notably, our analyses suggest elevated transcriptional noise at E3.5 and within the non-committed epiblast at E6.5, coinciding with exit from pluripotency. By contrast, E6.5 primitive streak cells became highly synchronized and exhibit a shortened G1 cell-cycle phase, consistent with accelerated proliferation. Our study systematically charts transcriptional noise and uncovers molecular processes associated with early lineage decisions.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 28768204 · DOI · PMC5554778
Embryo model completes gastrulation to neurulation and organogenesis [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Embryonic stem (ES) cells can undergo many aspects of mammalian embryogenesis in vitro1-5, but their developmental potential is substantially extended by interactions with extraembryonic stem cells, including trophoblast stem (TS) cells, extraembryonic endoderm stem (XEN) cells and inducible XEN (iXEN) cells6-11.
- Closing excerpt
- Our results demonstrate the self-organization ability of ES cells and two types of extraembryonic stem cells to reconstitute mammalian development through and beyond gastrulation to neurulation and early organogenesis.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (218 words)
Embryonic stem (ES) cells can undergo many aspects of mammalian embryogenesis in vitro1-5, but their developmental potential is substantially extended by interactions with extraembryonic stem cells, including trophoblast stem (TS) cells, extraembryonic endoderm stem (XEN) cells and inducible XEN (iXEN) cells6-11. Here we assembled stem cell-derived embryos in vitro from mouse ES cells, TS cells and iXEN cells and showed that they recapitulate the development of whole natural mouse embryo in utero up to day 8.5 post-fertilization. Our embryo model displays headfolds with defined forebrain and midbrain regions and develops a beating heart-like structure, a trunk comprising a neural tube and somites, a tail bud containing neuromesodermal progenitors, a gut tube, and primordial germ cells. This complete embryo model develops within an extraembryonic yolk sac that initiates blood island development. Notably, we demonstrate that the neurulating embryo model assembled from Pax6-knockout ES cells aggregated with wild-type TS cells and iXEN cells recapitulates the ventral domain expansion of the neural tube that occurs in natural, ubiquitous Pax6-knockout embryos. Thus, these complete embryoids are a powerful in vitro model for dissecting the roles of diverse cell lineages and genes in development. Our results demonstrate the self-organization ability of ES cells and two types of extraembryonic stem cells to reconstitute mammalian development through and beyond gastrulation to neurulation and early organogenesis.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 36007540 · DOI · PMC9534772
Early patterning and specification of cardiac progenitors in gastrulating mesoderm [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Mammalian heart development requires precise allocation of cardiac progenitors.
- Closing excerpt
- These findings will be important to understand the basis of congenital heart defects and to derive cardiac regeneration strategies.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (150 words)
Mammalian heart development requires precise allocation of cardiac progenitors. The existence of a multipotent progenitor for all anatomic and cellular components of the heart has been predicted but its identity and contribution to the two cardiac progenitor 'fields' has remained undefined. Here we show, using clonal genetic fate mapping, that Mesp1+ cells in gastrulating mesoderm are rapidly specified into committed cardiac precursors fated for distinct anatomic regions of the heart. We identify Smarcd3 as a marker of early specified cardiac precursors and identify within these precursors a compartment boundary at the future junction of the left and right ventricles that arises prior to morphogenesis. Our studies define the timing and hierarchy of cardiac progenitor specification and demonstrate that the cellular and anatomical fate of mesoderm-derived cardiac cells is specified very early. These findings will be important to understand the basis of congenital heart defects and to derive cardiac regeneration strategies.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 25296024 · DOI · PMC4356145
Early coordination of cell migration and cardiac fate determination during mammalian gastrulation [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- During gastrulation, mesodermal cells derived from distinct regions are destined to acquire specific cardiac fates after undergoing complex migratory movements.
- Closing excerpt
- Together, these data reveal patterns of individual cell directionality and cardiac fate allocation within the seemingly unorganised migratory pattern of mesoderm cells.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (199 words)
During gastrulation, mesodermal cells derived from distinct regions are destined to acquire specific cardiac fates after undergoing complex migratory movements. Here, we used light-sheet imaging of live mouse embryos between gastrulation and heart tube formation to track mesodermal cells and to reconstruct lineage trees and 3D migration paths for up to five cell divisions. We found independent progenitors emerging at specific times, contributing exclusively to left ventricle/atrioventricular canal (LV/AVC) or atrial myocytes. LV/AVC progenitors differentiated early to form the cardiac crescent, while atrial progenitors later generated the heart tube's Nr2f2+ inflow tract during morphogenesis. We also identified short-lived multipotent progenitors with broad potential, illustrating early developmental plasticity. Descendants of multipotent progenitors displayed greater dispersion and more diverse migratory trajectories within the anterior mesoderm than the progeny of uni-fated progenitors. Progenitors contributing to extraembryonic mesoderm (ExEm) exhibited the fastest and most dispersed migrations. In contrast, those giving rise to endocardial, LV/AVC, and pericardial cells showed a more gradual divergence, with late-stage behavioural shifts: endocardial cells increased in speed, while pericardial cells slowed down in comparison to LV/AVC cells. Together, these data reveal patterns of individual cell directionality and cardiac fate allocation within the seemingly unorganised migratory pattern of mesoderm cells.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40360834 · DOI · PMC12170898
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Gastrulation: making and shaping germ layers [5]
- Research article Regulation of convergence and extension movements during vertebrate gastrulation by the Wnt/PCP pathway [6]
- Research article Early human embryonic development: Blastocyst formation to gastrulation [7]
- Research article Mouse gastrulation: Coordination of tissue patterning, specification and diversification of cell fate [8]
- Research article Small RNAs in early mammalian development: from gametes to gastrulation [9]
- Research article Epithelial to mesenchymal transition during gastrulation: an embryological view [10]
References
- Mohammed H, Hernando-Herraez I, Savino A, Scialdone A, Macaulay I, Mulas C, et al.. Single-Cell Landscape of Transcriptional Heterogeneity and Cell Fate Decisions during Mouse Early Gastrulation. . 2017. PMID 28768204 · DOI · PMC5554778
- Amadei G, Handford CE, Qiu C, De Jonghe J, Greenfeld H, Tran M, et al.. Embryo model completes gastrulation to neurulation and organogenesis. . 2022. PMID 36007540 · DOI · PMC9534772
- Devine WP, Wythe JD, George M, Koshiba-Takeuchi K, Bruneau BG. Early patterning and specification of cardiac progenitors in gastrulating mesoderm. . 2014. PMID 25296024 · DOI · PMC4356145
- Abukar S, Embacher PA, Ciccarelli A, Varsani-Brown S, North IGW, Dean JA, et al.. Early coordination of cell migration and cardiac fate determination during mammalian gastrulation. . 2025. PMID 40360834 · DOI · PMC12170898
- Solnica-Krezel L, Sepich DS. Gastrulation: making and shaping germ layers. Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2012. PMID 22804578 · DOI
- Roszko I, Sawada A, Solnica-Krezel L. Regulation of convergence and extension movements during vertebrate gastrulation by the Wnt/PCP pathway. Semin Cell Dev Biol. 2009. PMID 19761865 · DOI · PMC2796982
- Rossant J, Tam PPL. Early human embryonic development: Blastocyst formation to gastrulation. Dev Cell. 2022. PMID 35077679 · DOI
- Bardot ES, Hadjantonakis AK. Mouse gastrulation: Coordination of tissue patterning, specification and diversification of cell fate. Mech Dev. 2020. PMID 32473204 · DOI · PMC7534585
- Suh N, Blelloch R. Small RNAs in early mammalian development: from gametes to gastrulation. Development. 2011. PMID 21486922 · DOI · PMC3074443
- Nakaya Y, Sheng G. Epithelial to mesenchymal transition during gastrulation: an embryological view. Dev Growth Differ. 2008. PMID 19046163 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.