Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (595 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Hormones produced by the gonads, including both steroid and peptide hormones. The major steroid hormones include estradiol and progesterone from the ovary, and testosterone from the testis. The major peptide hormones include activins and inhibins.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Hormones, Gonadal; Gonadal Hormone; Hormone, Gonadal.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Hormones
- Narrower topics
- Activins; Corpus Luteum Hormones; Gonadal Steroid Hormones; Inhibins; Testicular Hormones
Related concepts
- Gonads
- Estradiol
- Progesterone
- Ovary
- Testosterone
- Testis
- Activins
- Inhibins
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 264,888 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Gonadal Hormones” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 27,502 of them (10.4%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 137,636 records.
Reviews account for 20,916 records (7.9%) and meta-analyses for 1,205. Randomized controlled trials number 9,570 (3.6%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 137,636 |
| 2000-2009 | 50,537 |
| 2010-2019 | 49,213 |
| 2020 onward | 27,502 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 20,916 | 7.9% |
| Meta-analyses | 1,205 | 0.5% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 9,570 | 3.6% |
Method: PubMed query "Gonadal Hormones"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in drugs and chemicals
Studies of a chemical or drug can answer very different questions: what it is and how it behaves in cells and animals, how the body handles it, and whether it changes outcomes in people. Laboratory and animal findings often do not carry over to patients, and observational studies of exposures are confounded by who uses a substance and why. Nothing on this page is a recommendation to use, avoid, start or stop any substance or medicine; talk to a qualified clinician or pharmacist about your own situation. Check the dose, the species, the comparison group and whether a patient-relevant outcome was measured.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| What anabolic-androgenic steroids reveal about the limits of current harm reduction models | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 4 | cc by PMID 41813613 · DOI · PMC13677802 |
| The prenatal sex steroid theory of autism after 25 years | 2026 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 42162383 · DOI · PMC7619363 |
| Cardiac safety of chronic inhibition of the myostatin-activin pathway with bimagrumab in healthy older adults | 2026 | Randomized controlled trial Design not recorded in structured metadata | 2 | cc by PMID 41873146 · DOI · PMC13466935 |
What anabolic-androgenic steroids reveal about the limits of current harm reduction models [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- BackgroundHarm reduction has largely been shaped by responses to psychoactive drug use where the most urgent harms are acute.
- Closing excerpt
- We have used AAS as an example of this evolution, attempting to highlight cross-substance learnings which integrate consumer-focused tools, workforce development, and peer-led support.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (217 words)
BackgroundHarm reduction has largely been shaped by responses to psychoactive drug use where the most urgent harms are acute. These models focus on overdose, blood-borne viruses, and rapid-onset toxicity related harms. When applied wholesale to anabolic-androgenic steroids (AAS), they obscure the distinctive pharmacology, consumer typologies, and slow-developing physiological risks that define people who use AAS.ArgumentAAS use is often chronic, patterned, and long-term. Harms are often cumulative and organ-based rather than event-based. Routes of administration carry different risk profiles, with oral formulations being more hepatotoxic and commonly falsified through mislabelling or adulteration than injectable products. Despite this, most health services position injecting as inherently higher risk, applying paradigms developed for opioids and stimulants that have not been adapted for AAS use. Using evidence across pharmacology, delivery routes, dependence trajectories, and consumer types, this paper argues for expanding harm reduction models to consider the unique needs of different populations of people who use drugs, including AAS. We draw critically on lessons from other substances as well as multiple existing approaches including structured dosing frameworks, and supply-checking infrastructures, provide practical templates for expanding adaptation to AAS.ConclusionsTo remain evidence-based, harm reduction must evolve to be contextually relevant. We have used AAS as an example of this evolution, attempting to highlight cross-substance learnings which integrate consumer-focused tools, workforce development, and peer-led support.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41813613 · DOI · PMC13677802
The prenatal sex steroid theory of autism after 25 years [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- We first proposed the prenatal sex steroid theory of autism 25 years ago to account for a number of then-unexplained observations around autism, including (1) the more frequent diagnosis of autism in male than in female individuals and (2) apparent 'male-type' shifts in cognitive traits associated with autism, such as empathizing and systemizing.
- Closing excerpt
- These new findings support and open new lines of research into the prenatal sex steroid theory of autism.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (148 words)
We first proposed the prenatal sex steroid theory of autism 25 years ago to account for a number of then-unexplained observations around autism, including (1) the more frequent diagnosis of autism in male than in female individuals and (2) apparent 'male-type' shifts in cognitive traits associated with autism, such as empathizing and systemizing. Here we review 25 years of research testing this theory. Early studies found that higher prenatal testosterone levels were associated with slower social, language and empathy development, greater attention to detail, stronger systemizing and more autistic traits. Subsequent studies suggested that both prenatal androgens and oestrogens are associated with autism. New methods in genetics and using stem-cell-derived neural organoids have further indicated the importance of sex steroid hormones for neurodevelopment, as well as atypical patterns in autism. These new findings support and open new lines of research into the prenatal sex steroid theory of autism.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42162383 · DOI · PMC7619363
Cardiac safety of chronic inhibition of the myostatin-activin pathway with bimagrumab in healthy older adults [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- ContextGLP-1 receptor agonists have revolutionized the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes, but may cause excess muscle loss.
- Closing excerpt
- These results support consideration of bimagrumab as a skeletal muscle-sparing intervention in adults undergoing weight loss with GLP-1 receptor agonists.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (230 words)
ContextGLP-1 receptor agonists have revolutionized the treatment of obesity and type 2 diabetes, but may cause excess muscle loss. Inhibitors of the myostatin-activin pathway can cause fat loss and skeletal muscle gain, but the effect of chronic pathway inhibition on human cardiac muscle is not known.ObjectiveInvestigate the effects of extended inhibition of the myostatin-activin pathway on cardiovascular parameters in healthy older adults.DesignRandomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study with 6 months of treatment and up to 6 months of follow-up.SettingSingle commercial study site.Participants68 healthy community-living men and women aged 60 to 86 years.InterventionsIntravenous bimagrumab 10 mg/kg or placebo.Main outcome measuresCardiac magnetic resonance assessment of changes in left ventricular mass index (LVMI) and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF). Changes in total lean body mass (LBM) and total body fat mass (FM) by dual energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA).ResultsAt 6 months, no clinically relevant change was observed in LVMI (least squares mean [90% confidence interval] 1.6 g/m2 [-0.2, 3.4], P = .148) or LVEF (2.0% [-0.4, 4.4], P = .176) between treatments. Total LBM (mean [standard deviation]) increased by 5.5% [3.6], and FM decreased by -14% [8.9] with bimagrumab vs placebo (both P ConclusionSix months of myostatin-activin pathway inhibition with bimagrumab had no effect on cardiac structure or function in healthy older adults compared to placebo. These results support consideration of bimagrumab as a skeletal muscle-sparing intervention in adults undergoing weight loss with GLP-1 receptor agonists.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41873146 · DOI · PMC13466935
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Vaginal progesterone for preventing preterm birth and adverse perinatal outcomes in singleton gestations with a short cervix: a meta-analysis of individual patient data [4]
- Research article Meta-analysis identifies five novel loci associated with endometriosis highlighting key genes involved in hormone metabolism [5]
- Research article The effects of sex hormones on immune function: a meta-analysis [6]
- Research article Sex hormones, hormonal interventions, and gastric cancer risk: a meta-analysis [7]
- Research article Sex Steroids and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Transgender Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis [8]
- Research article Long-term hormone therapy for perimenopausal and postmenopausal women [9]
References
- Piatkowski T, Nagata JM, Nielsen S. What anabolic-androgenic steroids reveal about the limits of current harm reduction models. . 2026. PMID 41813613 · DOI · PMC13677802
- Baron-Cohen S, Tsompanidis A, Srivastava DP, Mill J, Lancaster MA, Adhya D, et al.. The prenatal sex steroid theory of autism after 25 years. . 2026. PMID 42162383 · DOI · PMC7619363
- Rooks D, Yates DP, Neelakantham S, Praestgaard J, Cury RC, Lamb HJ, et al.. Cardiac safety of chronic inhibition of the myostatin-activin pathway with bimagrumab in healthy older adults. . 2026. PMID 41873146 · DOI · PMC13466935
- Romero R, Conde-Agudelo A, Da Fonseca E, O'Brien JM, Cetingoz E, Creasy GW, et al.. Vaginal progesterone for preventing preterm birth and adverse perinatal outcomes in singleton gestations with a short cervix: a meta-analysis of individual patient data. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2018. PMID 29157866 · DOI · PMC5987201
- Sapkota Y, Steinthorsdottir V, Morris AP, Fassbender A, Rahmioglu N, De Vivo I, et al.. Meta-analysis identifies five novel loci associated with endometriosis highlighting key genes involved in hormone metabolism. Nat Commun. 2017. PMID 28537267 · DOI · PMC5458088
- Foo YZ, Nakagawa S, Rhodes G, Simmons LW. The effects of sex hormones on immune function: a meta-analysis. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc. 2017. PMID 26800512 · DOI
- Camargo MC, Goto Y, Zabaleta J, Morgan DR, Correa P, Rabkin CS. Sex hormones, hormonal interventions, and gastric cancer risk: a meta-analysis. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 2012. PMID 22028402 · DOI · PMC3315355
- Maraka S, Singh Ospina N, Rodriguez-Gutierrez R, Davidge-Pitts CJ, Nippoldt TB, Prokop LJ, et al.. Sex Steroids and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Transgender Individuals: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2017. PMID 28945852 · DOI
- Marjoribanks J, Farquhar C, Roberts H, Lethaby A, Lee J. Long-term hormone therapy for perimenopausal and postmenopausal women. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2017. PMID 28093732 · DOI · PMC6465148
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.