Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (851 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Regeneration of normal immune function after immune depleting procedures or infections (e.g., hematopoietic stem cell transplantation). Delayed and incomplete reconstitution of the adaptive immune system in particular involving t-cells is associated with increase or relapse of infection.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Immune Restoration; Immune Regeneration.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Immune System Phenomena
- See also
- Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome
Related concepts
- Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation
- Adaptive Immune
- T-Lymphocytes
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 512 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Immune Reconstitution” (counts retrieved 2026-10-29). 385 of them (75.2%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is 2020 onward with 385 records.
Reviews account for 86 records (16.8%) and meta-analyses for 1. Randomized controlled trials number 10 (2.0%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 0 |
| 2000-2009 | 0 |
| 2010-2019 | 133 |
| 2020 onward | 385 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 86 | 16.8% |
| Meta-analyses | 1 | 0.2% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 10 | 2.0% |
Method: PubMed query "Immune Reconstitution"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-29.
Reading the evidence in immunology
Immune responses are studied in model organisms, in cells from donors and in patients, and the same pathway can behave differently across these settings. Mouse immune systems differ from human ones in important ways, and blood measurements may not reflect what happens in tissues. Clinical conclusions about immune-mediated disease or immunotherapy come mainly from controlled trials and long-term cohorts. Check the species and tissue studied, whether markers were linked to outcomes patients notice, and the follow-up time.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
B Cell Reconstitution and Influencing Factors After Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Children [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- B cell reconstitution after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is variable and influenced by different patient, donor, and treatment related factors.
- Closing excerpt
- The integrated aspects of B cell recovery after HSCT, especially BCR repertoire reconstitution, are awaiting further investigation using modern techniques in order to gain more insight into B cell reconstitution and to develop strategies to improve humoral immunity after allogeneic HSCT.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (164 words)
B cell reconstitution after hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is variable and influenced by different patient, donor, and treatment related factors. In this review we describe B cell reconstitution after pediatric allogeneic HST, including the kinetics of reconstitution of the different B cell subsets and the development of the B cell repertoire, and discuss the influencing factors. Observational studies show important roles for stem cell source, conditioning regimen, and graft vs. host disease in B cell reconstitution. In addition, B cell recovery can play an important role in post-transplant infections and vaccine responses to encapsulated bacteria, such as pneumococcus. A substantial number of patients experience impaired B cell function and/or dependency on Ig substitution after allogeneic HSCT. The underlying mechanisms are largely unresolved. The integrated aspects of B cell recovery after HSCT, especially BCR repertoire reconstitution, are awaiting further investigation using modern techniques in order to gain more insight into B cell reconstitution and to develop strategies to improve humoral immunity after allogeneic HSCT.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 31031769 · DOI · PMC6473193
Improved Overall Survival, Relapse-Free-Survival, and Less Graft-vs.-Host-Disease in Patients With High Immune Reconstitution of TCR Gamma Delta Cells 2 Months After Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- T-cell receptor (TCR) γδ cells are perceived as innate-like effector cells with the possibility of mediating graft-vs.
- Closing excerpt
- These results suggest a protective role of TCR γδ cells in relapse and GVHD and encourage further research in developing adaptive TCR γδ cell therapy for improving outcomes after HSCT.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (345 words)
T-cell receptor (TCR) γδ cells are perceived as innate-like effector cells with the possibility of mediating graft-vs. -tumor (GVT) without causing graft-vs.-host disease (GVHD) in the setting of hematopoietic allogeneic stem cell transplantation (HSCT). We conducted a prospective study to assess the clinical impact of TCR γδ cell immune reconstitution on overall survival, relapse-free-survival, relapse and GVHD. The impact of CD3, CD4, and CD8 T cells together with NK cells including subtypes were analyzed in parallel. A total of 108 patients with hematological malignancies transplanted with HLA-matched, T cell replete stem cell grafts were included for analyses of absolute concentrations of CD3, CD4, and CD8 positive T cells and NK cells together with a multi-color flow cytometry panel with staining for TCRαβ, TCRγδ, Vδ1, Vδ2, CD3, CD4, CD8, HLA-DR, CD196, CD45RO, CD45RA, CD16, CD56, CD337, and CD314 at 28, 56, 91, 180, and 365 days after transplantation. Immune reconstitution data including subsets and differentiation markers of T and NK cells during the first year after transplantation was provided. Patients with TCR γδ cell concentrations above the median value of 21 (0-416) × 106 cells/L 56 days after transplantation had significantly improved overall survival (p = 0.001) and relapse-free survival (p = 0.007) compared to patients with concentrations below this value. When day 56 cell subset concentrations were included as continuous variables, TCR γδ cells were the only T cell subsets with a significant impact on OS and RFS; the impact of TCR γδ cells remained statistically significant in multivariate analyses adjusted for pre-transplant risk factors. The risk of death from relapse was significantly decreased in patients with high concentrations of TCR γδ cells 56 days after transplantation (p = 0.003). Also, the risk of acute GVHD was significantly lower in patients with day 28 TCR γδ cell concentrations above the median of 18 × 106 cells/L compared to patients with low concentrations (p = 0.01). These results suggest a protective role of TCR γδ cells in relapse and GVHD and encourage further research in developing adaptive TCR γδ cell therapy for improving outcomes after HSCT.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 31507601 · DOI · PMC6714591
Mass Cytometry for the Assessment of Immune Reconstitution After Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Mass cytometry, or Cytometry by Time-Of-Flight, is a powerful new platform for high-dimensional single-cell analysis of the immune system.
- Closing excerpt
- This review explores the current knowledge of immune reconstitution in HSCT recipients and highlights recent mass cytometry studies contributing to the field.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (163 words)
Mass cytometry, or Cytometry by Time-Of-Flight, is a powerful new platform for high-dimensional single-cell analysis of the immune system. It enables the simultaneous measurement of over 40 markers on individual cells through the use of monoclonal antibodies conjugated to rare-earth heavy-metal isotopes. In contrast to the fluorochromes used in conventional flow cytometry, metal isotopes display minimal signal overlap when resolved by single-cell mass spectrometry. This review focuses on the potential of mass cytometry as a novel technology for studying immune reconstitution in allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplant (HSCT) recipients. Reconstitution of a healthy donor-derived immune system after HSCT involves the coordinated regeneration of innate and adaptive immune cell subsets in the recipient. Mass cytometry presents an opportunity to investigate immune reconstitution post-HSCT from a systems-level perspective, by allowing the phenotypic and functional features of multiple cell populations to be assessed simultaneously. This review explores the current knowledge of immune reconstitution in HSCT recipients and highlights recent mass cytometry studies contributing to the field.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 30093901 · DOI · PMC6070614
Factors Affecting Immune Reconstitution Post-Allogeneic HSCT in Children: The Case for an Individualized Approach to Vaccination [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is increasingly used to treat malignant and non-malignant diseases.
- Closing excerpt
- Further studies in pediatric populations are needed to define immunological threshold that would enable safer and more effective personalized vaccination schedules.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (179 words)
Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is increasingly used to treat malignant and non-malignant diseases. Following allogeneic HSCT, patients are particularly vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases (VPD) because conditioning depletes immune cells, including memory cells. Revaccination is therefore essential, but multiple factors, such as conditioning regimen, stem cell source, HLA compatibility, graft-versus-host-disease (GVHD), and age, affect immune reconstitution and vaccine response. Current guidelines recommend uniform vaccination schedule for all allogeneic HSCT patients, despite this heterogeneity. In this review, we discuss how these factors influence immune reconstitution and vaccine response, and highlights the need for a more individualized approach. Based on current evidence, we propose that vaccine timing, particularly for inactivated vaccines, could benefit from adjustment according to immune recovery markers, such as lymphocyte counts and presence of GVHD, rather than relying on fixed post-HSCT timepoints. We also discuss emerging immunotherapies, including CAR-T cells and bispecific antibodies, which can induce similarly prolonged immunosuppression and may benefit from personalized vaccination strategies. Further studies in pediatric populations are needed to define immunological threshold that would enable safer and more effective personalized vaccination schedules.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41408960 · DOI · PMC12958788
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Incomplete immune reconstitution in HIV/AIDS patients on antiretroviral therapy: Challenges of immunological non-responders [5]
- Research article B cells in multiple sclerosis - from targeted depletion to immune reconstitution therapies [6]
- Research article Infectious complications, immune reconstitution, and infection prophylaxis after CD19 chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy [7]
- Research article Immune reconstitution therapies: concepts for durable remission in multiple sclerosis [8]
- Research article Tendon Immune Regeneration: Insights on the Synergetic Role of Stem and Immune Cells during Tendon Regeneration [9]
- Research article Influence of KIR and NK Cell Reconstitution in the Outcomes of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation [10]
References
- van der Maas NG, Berghuis D, van der Burg M, Lankester AC. B Cell Reconstitution and Influencing Factors After Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation in Children. . 2019. PMID 31031769 · DOI · PMC6473193
- Minculescu L, Marquart HV, Ryder LP, Andersen NS, Schjoedt I, Friis LS, et al.. Improved Overall Survival, Relapse-Free-Survival, and Less Graft-vs.-Host-Disease in Patients With High Immune Reconstitution of TCR Gamma Delta Cells 2 Months After Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation. . 2019. PMID 31507601 · DOI · PMC6714591
- Stern L, McGuire H, Avdic S, Rizzetto S, Fazekas de St Groth B, Luciani F, et al.. Mass Cytometry for the Assessment of Immune Reconstitution After Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. . 2018. PMID 30093901 · DOI · PMC6070614
- Buvelot H, Baleydier F, Pittet L, Blanchard-Rohner G. Factors Affecting Immune Reconstitution Post-Allogeneic HSCT in Children: The Case for an Individualized Approach to Vaccination. . 2026. PMID 41408960 · DOI · PMC12958788
- Yang X, Su B, Zhang X, Liu Y, Wu H, Zhang T. Incomplete immune reconstitution in HIV/AIDS patients on antiretroviral therapy: Challenges of immunological non-responders. J Leukoc Biol. 2020. PMID 31965635 · DOI · PMC7187275
- Cencioni MT, Mattoscio M, Magliozzi R, Bar-Or A, Muraro PA. B cells in multiple sclerosis - from targeted depletion to immune reconstitution therapies. Nat Rev Neurol. 2021. PMID 34075251 · DOI
- Wudhikarn K, Perales MA. Infectious complications, immune reconstitution, and infection prophylaxis after CD19 chimeric antigen receptor T-cell therapy. Bone Marrow Transplant. 2022. PMID 35840746 · DOI · PMC9285870
- Lünemann JD, Ruck T, Muraro PA, Bar-Or A, Wiendl H. Immune reconstitution therapies: concepts for durable remission in multiple sclerosis. Nat Rev Neurol. 2020. PMID 31649335 · DOI
- Russo V, El Khatib M, Prencipe G, Citeroni MR, Faydaver M, Mauro A, et al.. Tendon Immune Regeneration: Insights on the Synergetic Role of Stem and Immune Cells during Tendon Regeneration. Cells. 2022. PMID 35159244 · DOI · PMC8834336
- Gao F, Ye Y, Gao Y, Huang H, Zhao Y. Influence of KIR and NK Cell Reconstitution in the Outcomes of Hematopoietic Stem Cell Transplantation. Front Immunol. 2020. PMID 32983145 · DOI · PMC7493622
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-29.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.