Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (621 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A 51-amino acid pancreatic hormone that plays a major role in the regulation of glucose metabolism, directly by suppressing endogenous glucose production (glycogenolysis; gluconeogenesis) and indirectly by suppressing glucagon secretion and lipolysis. Native insulin is a globular protein comprised of a zinc-coordinated hexamer. Each insulin monomer containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues), linked by two disulfide bonds. Insulin is used as a drug to control insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (diabetes mellitus, TYPE 1).
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Insulin, Regular; Regular Insulin; Soluble Insulin; Insulin, Soluble; Iletin; Insulin A Chain; Novolin; Sodium Insulin.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Proinsulin
- Narrower topics
- Insulin, Regular, Human; Insulin, Regular, Pork
- See also
- Hyperinsulinism; Proinsulin; Receptor, Insulin; Somatomedins
Related concepts
- Glycogenolysis
- Gluconeogenesis
- Glucagon
- Lipolysis
- Diabetes Mellitus
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 209,681 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Insulin” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 24,957 of them (11.9%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 95,018 records.
Reviews account for 21,109 records (10.1%) and meta-analyses for 1,309. Randomized controlled trials number 11,390 (5.4%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 95,018 |
| 2000-2009 | 42,769 |
| 2010-2019 | 46,937 |
| 2020 onward | 24,957 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 21,109 | 10.1% |
| Meta-analyses | 1,309 | 0.6% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 11,390 | 5.4% |
Method: PubMed query "Insulin"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in drugs and chemicals
Studies of a chemical or drug can answer very different questions: what it is and how it behaves in cells and animals, how the body handles it, and whether it changes outcomes in people. Laboratory and animal findings often do not carry over to patients, and observational studies of exposures are confounded by who uses a substance and why. Nothing on this page is a recommendation to use, avoid, start or stop any substance or medicine; talk to a qualified clinician or pharmacist about your own situation. Check the dose, the species, the comparison group and whether a patient-relevant outcome was measured.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Human MASLD is a diurnal disease driven by multisystem insulin resistance and reduced insulin availability at night | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 13 | cc by PMID 41529695 · DOI · PMC7619395 |
| A Wearable, Dual Closed-loop Insulin Delivery System for Precision Diabetes Management | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 10 | cc by PMID 41524605 · DOI · PMC12879279 |
| Insulin Signaling in Alzheimer's Disease: Association with Brain Insulin Resistance | 2026 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 9 | cc by PMID 41683647 · DOI · PMC12897661 |
Human MASLD is a diurnal disease driven by multisystem insulin resistance and reduced insulin availability at night [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Hepatic lipid and glucose metabolism have been shown to be under tight circadian control in pre-clinical models.
- Closing excerpt
- Integrated proteomics of plasma, adipose, and skeletal muscle tissue across day and night also identified a number of specific molecular targets that may offer therapeutic potential in the treatment of metabolic disease.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (223 words)
Hepatic lipid and glucose metabolism have been shown to be under tight circadian control in pre-clinical models. However, it remains unknown whether diurnal patterns exist in functional processes governing intrahepatic lipid accumulation in humans. We performed metabolic phenotyping, including state-of-the-art stable isotope techniques, during day and night in patients with metabolic dysfunction-associated steatotic liver disease (MASLD) and overweight controls (NCT05962099). The primary outcome was diurnal change in hepatic de novo lipogenesis (DNL), alongside a number of secondary outcomes, including changes in hepatic glucose production, glucose disposal, plasma non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), and whole-body glucose and lipid oxidation. We show that nighttime metabolic dysfunction is a hallmark of MASLD with multiple pathogenic pathways upregulated at night, including hepatic and peripheral insulin resistance, DNL, and systemic NEFA exposure. Insulin resistance is compounded by lower plasma insulin levels at night, secondary to reduced insulin secretion and elevated insulin clearance. Diurnal differences persist when performing identical investigations after weight loss with liver fat reductions, suggesting that nighttime metabolic dysfunction may be a primary driver of steatosis. These findings will help establish the optimal window for energy intake, exercise, and medication delivery in patients with MASLD. Integrated proteomics of plasma, adipose, and skeletal muscle tissue across day and night also identified a number of specific molecular targets that may offer therapeutic potential in the treatment of metabolic disease.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41529695 · DOI · PMC7619395
A Wearable, Dual Closed-loop Insulin Delivery System for Precision Diabetes Management [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Effective blood glucose management is an increasing demand worldwide.
- Closing excerpt
- 10%), encouraging its deployment toward precision diabetes care.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (143 words)
Effective blood glucose management is an increasing demand worldwide. Traditional solutions separate glucose detection and insulin delivery, which is less efficient compared to emerging closed-loop wearable systems controlled by continuous glucose monitors (CGMs). However, CGM-controlled systems raise new safety risks, as false CGMs readings can cause insulin overdose, which results in hypoglycemia and fatal consequences. This work proposes a concept of a dual closed-loop insulin delivery system (DuoLoop) to mitigate the risk issue of CGM-controlled systems. The first closed-loop is automated insulin delivery controlled by CGM. The second closed-loop is the controlled release of glucose-responsive insulin (GRI), whose release rate depends on actual glucose levels. A customized algorithm is trained and embedded into the wearable CGMs for edge computing. The DuoLoop system shows improved safety in preliminary in vivo test (longer normoglycemia durations, 98.82% vs 92.10%), encouraging its deployment toward precision diabetes care.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41524605 · DOI · PMC12879279
Insulin Signaling in Alzheimer's Disease: Association with Brain Insulin Resistance [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Insulin is an anabolic hormone involved in the regulation of several processes, such as the storage of glucose into glycogen, decrease of glucose output, stimulation of glucose transport into cells, etc.
- Closing excerpt
- Our review describes the role of insulin in the human brain, as well as the disturbances in insulin signaling resulting from brain insulin resistance, with a particular focus on its association with Alzheimer's disease.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (255 words)
Insulin is an anabolic hormone involved in the regulation of several processes, such as the storage of glucose into glycogen, decrease of glucose output, stimulation of glucose transport into cells, etc. The hormone binds to its receptor, thereby activating an intracellular signaling cascade. Once activated, the insulin receptor (INSR) phosphorylates multiple intracellular substrates, which initiate the downstream signaling pathway. The nature of insulin signaling pathways may vary depending on the organ or tissue. In the central nervous system (CNS), INSRs are expressed in all cell types. This observation may suggest that insulin signaling is involved in important and diverse processes. It regulates glucose metabolism, supports cognitive functions, enhances the outgrowth of neurons, as well as plays a role in the modulation of release and uptake of catecholamine, among other roles. Importantly, insulin can freely cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) from the circulation and is also synthesized locally within the brain. Insulin resistance (IR) impairs insulin signaling, which may accelerate brain aging, affect plasticity, and potentially contribute to neurodegeneration. Dysregulation of insulin signaling has been implicated in several diseases, including diabetes mellitus, metabolic syndrome, certain cancers, and neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease. There are two principal insulin signaling pathways: the PI3K/AKT pathway, primarily associated with metabolic effects, and the MAPK pathway, which is involved in cell growth, survival, and gene expression. Our review describes the role of insulin in the human brain, as well as the disturbances in insulin signaling resulting from brain insulin resistance, with a particular focus on its association with Alzheimer's disease.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41683647 · DOI · PMC12897661
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article New genetic loci link adipose and insulin biology to body fat distribution [4]
- Research article Intensive insulin therapy and mortality among critically ill patients: a meta-analysis including NICE-SUGAR study data [5]
- Research article Glibenclamide, metformin, and insulin for the treatment of gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis [6]
- Research article Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily insulin injections in patients with diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis [7]
- Research article Effects of Interrupting Prolonged Sitting with Physical Activity Breaks on Blood Glucose, Insulin and Triacylglycerol Measures: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [8]
- Research article A systematic review and meta-analysis of hypoglycemia and cardiovascular events: a comparison of glyburide with other secretagogues and with insulin [9]
References
- Marjot T, Smith K, Westcott F, White S, Johnson E, Srnic N, et al.. Human MASLD is a diurnal disease driven by multisystem insulin resistance and reduced insulin availability at night. . 2026. PMID 41529695 · DOI · PMC7619395
- He X, Huang W, Lin W, Cui B, Tian X, Bai J, et al.. A Wearable, Dual Closed-loop Insulin Delivery System for Precision Diabetes Management. . 2026. PMID 41524605 · DOI · PMC12879279
- Pliszka M, Szablewski L. Insulin Signaling in Alzheimer's Disease: Association with Brain Insulin Resistance. . 2026. PMID 41683647 · DOI · PMC12897661
- Shungin D, Winkler TW, Croteau-Chonka DC, Ferreira T, Locke AE, Mägi R, et al.. New genetic loci link adipose and insulin biology to body fat distribution. Nature. 2015. PMID 25673412 · DOI · PMC4338562
- Griesdale DE, de Souza RJ, van Dam RM, Heyland DK, Cook DJ, Malhotra A, et al.. Intensive insulin therapy and mortality among critically ill patients: a meta-analysis including NICE-SUGAR study data. CMAJ. 2009. PMID 19318387 · DOI · PMC2665940
- Balsells M, García-Patterson A, Solà I, Roqué M, Gich I, Corcoy R. Glibenclamide, metformin, and insulin for the treatment of gestational diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMJ. 2015. PMID 25609400 · DOI · PMC4301599
- Jeitler K, Horvath K, Berghold A, Gratzer TW, Neeser K, Pieber TR, et al.. Continuous subcutaneous insulin infusion versus multiple daily insulin injections in patients with diabetes mellitus: systematic review and meta-analysis. Diabetologia. 2008. PMID 18351320 · DOI
- Loh R, Stamatakis E, Folkerts D, Allgrove JE, Moir HJ. Effects of Interrupting Prolonged Sitting with Physical Activity Breaks on Blood Glucose, Insulin and Triacylglycerol Measures: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med. 2020. PMID 31552570 · DOI · PMC6985064
- Gangji AS, Cukierman T, Gerstein HC, Goldsmith CH, Clase CM. A systematic review and meta-analysis of hypoglycemia and cardiovascular events: a comparison of glyburide with other secretagogues and with insulin. Diabetes Care. 2007. PMID 17259518 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.