Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (624 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
The middle germ layer of an embryo derived from three paired mesenchymal aggregates along the neural tube.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Mesenchyma; Mesenchymas; Mesenchyme; Paraxial Mesoderm; Mesoderm, Paraxial; Mesoderms, Paraxial; Paraxial Mesoderms; Dorsal Mesoderm.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 22,326 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Mesoderm” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 2,681 of them (12.0%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is 2000-2009 with 7,395 records.
Reviews account for 2,946 records (13.2%) and meta-analyses for 4. Randomized controlled trials number 9 (0.0%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 6,026 |
| 2000-2009 | 7,395 |
| 2010-2019 | 6,224 |
| 2020 onward | 2,681 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 2,946 | 13.2% |
| Meta-analyses | 4 | 0.0% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 9 | 0.0% |
Method: PubMed query "Mesoderm"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Pericyte remodeling is deficient in the aged brain and contributes to impaired capillary flow and structure | 2022 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 120 | cc by PMID 36207315 · DOI · PMC9547063 |
| Characteristics of blood-brain barrier heterogeneity between brain regions revealed by profiling vascular and perivascular cells | 2024 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 114 | cc by PMID 39210068 · DOI · PMC11452347 |
| Aging drives cerebrovascular network remodeling and functional changes in the mouse brain | 2024 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 102 | cc by PMID 39080289 · DOI · PMC11289283 |
| Non-invasive characterization of pericyte dysfunction in mouse brain using functional ultrasound localization microscopy | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 7 | cc by PMID 40738972 · DOI · PMC12920088 |
Pericyte remodeling is deficient in the aged brain and contributes to impaired capillary flow and structure [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Deterioration of brain capillary flow and architecture is a hallmark of aging and dementia.
- Closing excerpt
- They also identify pericyte remodeling as a therapeutic target to preserve capillary flow dynamics.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (151 words)
Deterioration of brain capillary flow and architecture is a hallmark of aging and dementia. It remains unclear how loss of brain pericytes in these conditions contributes to capillary dysfunction. Here, we conduct cause-and-effect studies by optically ablating pericytes in adult and aged mice in vivo. Focal pericyte loss induces capillary dilation without blood-brain barrier disruption. These abnormal dilations are exacerbated in the aged brain, and result in increased flow heterogeneity in capillary networks. A subset of affected capillaries experience reduced perfusion due to flow steal. Some capillaries stall in flow and regress, leading to loss of capillary connectivity. Remodeling of neighboring pericytes restores endothelial coverage and vascular tone within days. Pericyte remodeling is slower in the aged brain, resulting in regions of persistent capillary dilation. These findings link pericyte loss to disruption of capillary flow and structure. They also identify pericyte remodeling as a therapeutic target to preserve capillary flow dynamics.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 36207315 · DOI · PMC9547063
Characteristics of blood-brain barrier heterogeneity between brain regions revealed by profiling vascular and perivascular cells [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects the brain and maintains neuronal homeostasis.
- Closing excerpt
- This platform can be used to investigate BBB heterogeneity in other regions and may facilitate the development of central nervous system region-specific therapeutics.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (151 words)
The blood-brain barrier (BBB) protects the brain and maintains neuronal homeostasis. BBB properties can vary between brain regions to support regional functions, yet how BBB heterogeneity occurs is poorly understood. Here, we used single-cell and spatial transcriptomics to compare the mouse median eminence, one of the circumventricular organs that has naturally leaky blood vessels, with the cortex. We identified hundreds of molecular differences in endothelial cells (ECs) and perivascular cells, including astrocytes, pericytes and fibroblasts. Using electron microscopy and an aqueous-based tissue-clearing method, we revealed distinct anatomical specializations and interaction patterns of ECs and perivascular cells in these regions. Finally, we identified candidate regionally enriched EC-perivascular cell ligand-receptor pairs. Our results indicate that both molecular specializations in ECs and unique EC-perivascular cell interactions contribute to BBB functional heterogeneity. This platform can be used to investigate BBB heterogeneity in other regions and may facilitate the development of central nervous system region-specific therapeutics.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39210068 · DOI · PMC11452347
Aging drives cerebrovascular network remodeling and functional changes in the mouse brain [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Aging is frequently associated with compromised cerebrovasculature and pericytes.
- Closing excerpt
- Collectively, we uncover regional vulnerabilities of cerebrovascular network and physiological changes that can mediate cognitive decline in normal aging.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (154 words)
Aging is frequently associated with compromised cerebrovasculature and pericytes. However, we do not know how normal aging differentially impacts vascular structure and function in different brain areas. Here we utilize mesoscale microscopy methods and in vivo imaging to determine detailed changes in aged murine cerebrovascular networks. Whole-brain vascular tracing shows an overall ~10% decrease in vascular length and branching density with ~7% increase in vascular radii in aged brains. Light sheet imaging with 3D immunolabeling reveals increased arteriole tortuosity of aged brains. Notably, vasculature and pericyte densities show selective and significant reductions in the deep cortical layers, hippocampal network, and basal forebrain areas. We find increased blood extravasation, implying compromised blood-brain barrier function in aged brains. Moreover, in vivo imaging in awake mice demonstrates reduced baseline and on-demand blood oxygenation despite relatively intact neurovascular coupling. Collectively, we uncover regional vulnerabilities of cerebrovascular network and physiological changes that can mediate cognitive decline in normal aging.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39080289 · DOI · PMC11289283
Non-invasive characterization of pericyte dysfunction in mouse brain using functional ultrasound localization microscopy [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Early microscopic-scale pericyte dysfunction contributes to the initial stages of many neurological diseases and represents a strong candidate target for therapeutic intervention.
- Closing excerpt
- As super-resolution ultrasound transitions to the clinic, our data support its future use in monitoring pericyte-focused therapies in humans.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (168 words)
Early microscopic-scale pericyte dysfunction contributes to the initial stages of many neurological diseases and represents a strong candidate target for therapeutic intervention. A non-invasive imaging modality able to image microvascular alterations induced by pericyte dysfunction is needed. In addition, the development of pericyte-focused therapies remains challenging due to the lack of early biomarkers of disease progression. Here we show that cerebral microvascular alterations induced by pericyte dysfunction can be characterized non-invasively in mice using functional ultrasound localization microscopy (fULM). Depletion of endothelial endoglin in adult mice as a model of hereditary haemorrhagic telangiectasia, leads to pericyte detachment in the arteriole-capillary transition (ACT) zone. Imaging reveals that arteriolar capillaries have irregular shapes, increased diameters, reduced blood speed and neurovascular uncoupling mainly localized in the ACT zone. Transforming growth factor-β signalling activator C381 restores pericyte coverage and neurovascular response. Our study underscores the potential of fULM in characterizing early microvascular alterations. As super-resolution ultrasound transitions to the clinic, our data support its future use in monitoring pericyte-focused therapies in humans.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40738972 · DOI · PMC12920088
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Pericytes: developmental, physiological, and pathological perspectives, problems, and promises [5]
- Research article Mechanisms of Renal Fibrosis [6]
- Research article Pericytes of the neurovascular unit: key functions and signaling pathways [7]
- Research article What is a pericyte? [8]
- Research article Patterning embryos with oscillations: structure, function and dynamics of the vertebrate segmentation clock [9]
- Research article The Translational Significance of the Neurovascular Unit [10]
References
- Berthiaume AA, Schmid F, Stamenkovic S, Coelho-Santos V, Nielson CD, Weber B, et al.. Pericyte remodeling is deficient in the aged brain and contributes to impaired capillary flow and structure. . 2022. PMID 36207315 · DOI · PMC9547063
- Pfau SJ, Langen UH, Fisher TM, Prakash I, Nagpurwala F, Lozoya RA, et al.. Characteristics of blood-brain barrier heterogeneity between brain regions revealed by profiling vascular and perivascular cells. . 2024. PMID 39210068 · DOI · PMC11452347
- Bennett HC, Zhang Q, Wu YT, Manjila SB, Chon U, Shin D, et al.. Aging drives cerebrovascular network remodeling and functional changes in the mouse brain. . 2024. PMID 39080289 · DOI · PMC11289283
- Thalgott JH, Zucker N, Deffieux T, Koopman MS, Dizeux A, Avramut CM, et al.. Non-invasive characterization of pericyte dysfunction in mouse brain using functional ultrasound localization microscopy. . 2026. PMID 40738972 · DOI · PMC12920088
- Armulik A, Genové G, Betsholtz C. Pericytes: developmental, physiological, and pathological perspectives, problems, and promises. Dev Cell. 2011. PMID 21839917 · DOI
- Humphreys BD. Mechanisms of Renal Fibrosis. Annu Rev Physiol. 2018. PMID 29068765 · DOI
- Sweeney MD, Ayyadurai S, Zlokovic BV. Pericytes of the neurovascular unit: key functions and signaling pathways. Nat Neurosci. 2016. PMID 27227366 · DOI · PMC5745011
- Attwell D, Mishra A, Hall CN, O'Farrell FM, Dalkara T. What is a pericyte?. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab. 2016. PMID 26661200 · DOI · PMC4759679
- Oates AC, Morelli LG, Ares S. Patterning embryos with oscillations: structure, function and dynamics of the vertebrate segmentation clock. Development. 2012. PMID 22274695 · DOI
- McConnell HL, Kersch CN, Woltjer RL, Neuwelt EA. The Translational Significance of the Neurovascular Unit. J Biol Chem. 2017. PMID 27920202 · DOI · PMC5247651
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.