Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (623 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
The monomeric units from which DNA or RNA polymers are constructed. They consist of a purine or pyrimidine base, a pentose sugar, and a phosphate group. (From King and Stansfield, A Dictionary of Genetics, 4th ed)
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Nucleotide.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Glycosides; Nucleic Acids, Nucleotides, and Nucleosides
- Narrower topics
- Nucleoside Diphosphate Sugars; Arabinonucleotides; Deoxyribonucleotides; Dideoxynucleotides; Dinucleoside Phosphates; Nucleotides, Cyclic; Polynucleotides; ProTides; Purine Nucleotides; Pyrimidine Nucleotides; Ribonucleotides; Thionucleotides
- See also
- Base Sequence
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 592,524 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Nucleotides” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 53,749 of them (9.1%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 292,044 records.
Reviews account for 32,724 records (5.5%) and meta-analyses for 347. Randomized controlled trials number 2,430 (0.4%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 292,044 |
| 2000-2009 | 140,880 |
| 2010-2019 | 105,851 |
| 2020 onward | 53,749 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 32,724 | 5.5% |
| Meta-analyses | 347 | 0.1% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 2,430 | 0.4% |
Method: PubMed query "Nucleotides"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in drugs and chemicals
Studies of a chemical or drug can answer very different questions: what it is and how it behaves in cells and animals, how the body handles it, and whether it changes outcomes in people. Laboratory and animal findings often do not carry over to patients, and observational studies of exposures are confounded by who uses a substance and why. Nothing on this page is a recommendation to use, avoid, start or stop any substance or medicine; talk to a qualified clinician or pharmacist about your own situation. Check the dose, the species, the comparison group and whether a patient-relevant outcome was measured.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| A metabolic constraint in de novo NAD+ synthesis drives mucosal inflammation in IBD | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 42223054 · DOI · PMC13223750 |
| Recognition of non-standard base pairs by triplex-forming oligonucleotides containing an expanded genetic alphabet | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 2 | cc by PMID 42286010 · DOI · PMC13407867 |
| Tubular epithelial cells promote macrophage pyroptosis through PANX1-extracellular ATP-P2X7 signaling in aldosterone-dependent renal injury | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 2 | cc by PMID 42552307 · DOI · PMC13438567 |
A metabolic constraint in de novo NAD+ synthesis drives mucosal inflammation in IBD [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- BackgroundInflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is associated with energy deficiency and perturbed metabolism of the essential amino acid tryptophan (Trp).
- Closing excerpt
- Restoring NAD + is a promising therapeutic strategy.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (169 words)
BackgroundInflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is associated with energy deficiency and perturbed metabolism of the essential amino acid tryptophan (Trp).ObjectiveWe aimed to determine whether excessive Trp degradation fuels or compensates for inflammation through de novo nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) synthesis.DesignA prospective systems medicine approach (metabolomics, transcriptomics) was employed longitudinally in patients with advanced IBD therapy. Findings were validated with targeted Trp metabolomics in experimental colitis and in vitro in fibroblasts, intestinal epithelial cells (IECs), and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs).ResultsActive IBD is marked by enhanced Trp degradation driven by inflammatory cytokines through the JAK/STAT pathway. Trp catabolism results in accumulation of quinolinic acid (QA) and NAD + depletion due to reduced expression of QPRT, the enzyme converting QA to NAD+. QPRT knockdown enhances inflammation, while NAD + precursor supplementation (e.g. nicotinamide riboside [NR]) restores cellular energy and reduces inflammation in vitro and in dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis.ConclusionA metabolic bottleneck at QPRT prevents efficient NAD+ synthesis from Trp in IBD, sustaining inflammation. Restoring NAD + is a promising therapeutic strategy.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42223054 · DOI · PMC13223750
Recognition of non-standard base pairs by triplex-forming oligonucleotides containing an expanded genetic alphabet [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The sequence-specific recognition of double-stranded DNA by biocompatible molecules is fundamental to molecular medicine and synthetic biology.
- Closing excerpt
- This generalized framework provides a robust platform for precision gene-targeting, molecular sensing, and nucleic acid nanotechnology.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (153 words)
The sequence-specific recognition of double-stranded DNA by biocompatible molecules is fundamental to molecular medicine and synthetic biology. Triplex-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) enable programmable major groove recognition via Hoogsteen base pairing; however, the limited repertoire of natural nucleobases imposes strict constraints on target sequences and parallel motif triplexes require acidic conditions for stability. Here, we have expanded the triplex recognition space using nucleobases from an artificially expanded genetic information system (AEGIS). Through a systematic evaluation of 120 base triad combinations, we identify at least 12 modular triads that can be combined interchangeably to target duplex DNA containing standard, damaged, or synthetic base pairs with nanomolar affinity at neutral pH. We further demonstrate the versatility of this expanded recognition code by detecting oxidative lesions or AEGIS base pairs in enzymatically assembled duplex constructs using both chemically and enzymatically synthesized TFOs. This generalized framework provides a robust platform for precision gene-targeting, molecular sensing, and nucleic acid nanotechnology.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42286010 · DOI · PMC13407867
Tubular epithelial cells promote macrophage pyroptosis through PANX1-extracellular ATP-P2X7 signaling in aldosterone-dependent renal injury [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Tubular epithelial cell (TEC)-macrophage crosstalk contributes to aldosterone (Aldo)-dependent renal fibrosis in hypertension.
- Closing excerpt
- Mechanism through which Aldo/MR-induced PANX1-eATP-P2X7 signaling activation promotes macrophage pyroptosis in hypertensive renal injury.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (301 words)
Tubular epithelial cell (TEC)-macrophage crosstalk contributes to aldosterone (Aldo)-dependent renal fibrosis in hypertension. Extracellular ATP (eATP) can act as a mediator of TEC-macrophage crosstalk. However, whether and how eATP functions in Aldo-induced renal injury remain unknown. A deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-salt-induced hypertensive mouse model and a primary mouse renal tubular epithelial cell (mTEC)-bone marrow-derived macrophage (BMDM) coculture model were developed. To investigate the relationship between Aldo/MR and eATP signaling in TEC-macrophage crosstalk, specific inhibitors, adeno-associated virus (AAV)-shRNA and small interfering RNA (siRNA) were used. scRNA-seq analysis of kidneys from DOCA-salt mice was performed for verification. Urinary ATP levels and renal pannexin1 (PANX1, an ATP efflux channel) expression increased significantly in DOCA-salt mice, whereas the selective mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) antagonist finerenone treatment reduced urinary ATP levels, PANX1 expression, tubular injury, and macrophage-related inflammation. Inhibiting PANX1-eATP-P2X7 signaling with the PANX1 inhibitor probenecid, specifically knocking down tubular PANX1, or using the eATP ectonucleotidase apyrase or the P2X7 blocker AZ10606120 mitigated renal tubular damage and NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis in the renal cortex of DOCA-salt mice. Similarly, in mTECs, finerenone suppressed Aldo-induced ATP release and PANX1 upregulation. A luciferase assay confirmed the binding site of MR to the PANX1 transcription promoter. Coculture of BMDMs with mTECs under Aldo stimulation significantly increased NLRP3-mediated BMDM pyroptosis and migration. However, these effects were reversed by treating the mTECs with MR or PANX1 siRNA. Similar results were observed after treatment with apyrase or AZ10606120 in the coculture system. scRNA-seq analysis further identified the activation of P2X7/NLRP3-related pyroptosis pathway in macrophages from DOCA-salt mice. In conclusion, TECs play a critical role in macrophage pyroptosis in Aldo-induced renal injury. eATP is a key messenger involved in TEC-macrophage crosstalk. PANX1-eATP-P2X7 signaling mediates TEC‒macrophage interactions to exacerbate Aldo-driven renal inflammation in hypertension. Mechanism through which Aldo/MR-induced PANX1-eATP-P2X7 signaling activation promotes macrophage pyroptosis in hypertensive renal injury.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42552307 · DOI · PMC13438567
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Association of 6-thioguanine nucleotide levels and inflammatory bowel disease activity: a meta-analysis [4]
- Research article Meta-analysis: Treatment of hepatitis B infection reduces risk of hepatocellular carcinoma [5]
- Research article Efficacy and Safety of Mipomersen: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials [6]
- Research article Remdesivir for treatment of COVID-19; an updated systematic review and meta-analysis [7]
- Research article Association between 6-thioguanine nucleotides levels and clinical remission in inflammatory disease: a meta-analysis [8]
- Research article Major Update: Remdesivir for Adults With COVID-19 : A Living Systematic Review and Meta-analysis for the American College of Physicians Practice Points [9]
References
- Wehkamp L, Harris DMM, Kim NM, Alsaadi AI, Wu Q, Oumari M, et al.. A metabolic constraint in de novo NAD+ synthesis drives mucosal inflammation in IBD. . 2026. PMID 42223054 · DOI · PMC13223750
- Brazzill M, Ma R, Munn K, Prestifilippo L, Pickford AR, Kim HJ, et al.. Recognition of non-standard base pairs by triplex-forming oligonucleotides containing an expanded genetic alphabet. . 2026. PMID 42286010 · DOI · PMC13407867
- Wang C, Ma H, Xu J, Tang Y, Feng J, Yang Y, et al.. Tubular epithelial cells promote macrophage pyroptosis through PANX1-extracellular ATP-P2X7 signaling in aldosterone-dependent renal injury. . 2026. PMID 42552307 · DOI · PMC13438567
- Osterman MT, Kundu R, Lichtenstein GR, Lewis JD. Association of 6-thioguanine nucleotide levels and inflammatory bowel disease activity: a meta-analysis. Gastroenterology. 2006. PMID 16618398 · DOI
- Sung JJ, Tsoi KK, Wong VW, Li KC, Chan HL. Meta-analysis: Treatment of hepatitis B infection reduces risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2008. PMID 18657133 · DOI
- Fogacci F, Ferri N, Toth PP, Ruscica M, Corsini A, Cicero AFG. Efficacy and Safety of Mipomersen: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Randomized Clinical Trials. Drugs. 2019. PMID 30989634 · DOI
- Rezagholizadeh A, Khiali S, Sarbakhsh P, Entezari-Maleki T. Remdesivir for treatment of COVID-19; an updated systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Pharmacol. 2021. PMID 33549577 · DOI · PMC7859696
- Moreau AC, Paul S, Del Tedesco E, Rinaudo-Gaujous M, Boukhadra N, Genin C, et al.. Association between 6-thioguanine nucleotides levels and clinical remission in inflammatory disease: a meta-analysis. Inflamm Bowel Dis. 2014. PMID 24418904 · DOI
- Kaka AS, MacDonald R, Greer N, Vela K, Duan-Porter W, Obley A, et al.. Major Update: Remdesivir for Adults With COVID-19 : A Living Systematic Review and Meta-analysis for the American College of Physicians Practice Points. Ann Intern Med. 2021. PMID 33560863 · DOI · PMC7901604
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.