Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (800 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Two pairs of small oval-shaped glands located in the front and the base of the NECK and adjacent to the two lobes of thyroid gland. They secrete parathyroid hormone that regulates the balance of calcium; phosphorus; and magnesium in the body.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Gland, Parathyroid; Glands, Parathyroid; Parathyroid Gland.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Endocrine Glands
- See also
- Parathyroidectomy
Related concepts
- Thyroid Gland
- Parathyroid Hormone
- Calcium
- Phosphorus
- Magnesium
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 13,642 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Parathyroid Glands” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 1,221 of them (9.0%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 9,502 records.
Reviews account for 1,331 records (9.8%) and meta-analyses for 56. Randomized controlled trials number 84 (0.6%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 9,502 |
| 2000-2009 | 1,458 |
| 2010-2019 | 1,461 |
| 2020 onward | 1,221 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 1,331 | 9.8% |
| Meta-analyses | 56 | 0.4% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 84 | 0.6% |
Method: PubMed query "Parathyroid Glands"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
Phosphate acts directly on the calcium-sensing receptor to stimulate parathyroid hormone secretion [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Extracellular phosphate regulates its own renal excretion by eliciting concentration-dependent secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH).
- Closing excerpt
- By sensing moderate changes in extracellular phosphate concentration, the CaSR represents a phosphate sensor in the parathyroid gland, explaining the stimulatory effect of phosphate on PTH secretion.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (146 words)
Extracellular phosphate regulates its own renal excretion by eliciting concentration-dependent secretion of parathyroid hormone (PTH). However, the phosphate-sensing mechanism remains unknown and requires elucidation for understanding the aetiology of secondary hyperparathyroidism in chronic kidney disease (CKD). The calcium-sensing receptor (CaSR) is the main controller of PTH secretion and here we show that raising phosphate concentration within the pathophysiologic range for CKD significantly inhibits CaSR activity via non-competitive antagonism. Mutation of residue R62 in anion binding site-1 abolishes phosphate-induced inhibition of CaSR. Further, pathophysiologic phosphate concentrations elicit rapid and reversible increases in PTH secretion from freshly-isolated human parathyroid cells consistent with a receptor-mediated action. The same effect is seen in wild-type murine parathyroid glands, but not in CaSR knockout glands. By sensing moderate changes in extracellular phosphate concentration, the CaSR represents a phosphate sensor in the parathyroid gland, explaining the stimulatory effect of phosphate on PTH secretion.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 31619668 · DOI · PMC6795806
Sporadic multiple parathyroid gland disease--a consensus report of the European Society of Endocrine Surgeons (ESES) [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- BackgroundSporadic multiglandular disease (MGD) has been reported in literature in 8-33 % of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (pHPT).
- Closing excerpt
- ConclusionsIdentifying preoperatively patients at risk for MGD remains challenging, intraoperative decisions are important for achieving acceptable cure rates and long-term follow-up is mandatory in such patients.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (281 words)
BackgroundSporadic multiglandular disease (MGD) has been reported in literature in 8-33 % of patients with primary hyperparathyroidism (pHPT). This paper aimed to review controversies in the pathogenesis and management of sporadic MGD.MethodsA literature search and review was made to evaluate the level of evidence concerning diagnosis and management of sporadic MGD according to criteria proposed by Sackett, with recommendation grading by Heinrich et al. and Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) system. Results were discussed at the 6th Workshop of the European Society of Endocrine Surgeons entitled 'Hyperparathyroidism due to multiple gland disease: An evidence-based perspective'.ResultsLiterature reports no prospective randomised studies; thus, a relatively low level of evidence was achieved. Appropriate surgical therapy of sporadic MGD should consist of a bilateral approach in most patients. Unilateral neck exploration guided by preoperative imaging should be reserved for selected patients, performed by an experienced endocrine surgeon and monitored by intraoperative parathormone assay (levels of evidence III-V, grade C recommendation). There is conflicting or equally weighted levels IV-V evidence supporting that cure rates can be similar or worse for sporadic MGD than for single adenomas (no recommendation). Best outcomes can be expected if surgery is performed by an experienced parathyroid surgeon working in a high-volume centre (grade C recommendation). Levels IV-V evidence supports that recurrent/persistence pHPT occurs more frequently in patients with double adenomas hence in situations where a double adenoma has been identified, the surgeon should have a high index of suspicion during surgery and postoperatively for the possibility of a four-gland disease (grade C recommendation).ConclusionsIdentifying preoperatively patients at risk for MGD remains challenging, intraoperative decisions are important for achieving acceptable cure rates and long-term follow-up is mandatory in such patients.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 26542689 · DOI · PMC4747992
The prevalence and anatomy of parathyroid glands: a meta-analysis with implications for parathyroid surgery [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- PurposeThe anatomy of parathyroid glands (PTG) is highly variable in the population.
- Closing excerpt
- ConclusionsKnowledge regarding the prevalence, location, and anatomy of PTG is essential for surgeons planning for and carrying out parathyroidectomies, as any unidentified PTG, either supernumerary or in ectopic location, can result in unsuccessful treatment and need for reoperation.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (210 words)
PurposeThe anatomy of parathyroid glands (PTG) is highly variable in the population. The aim of this study was to conduct a systematic analysis on the prevalence and location of PTG in healthy and hyperparathyroidism (HPT) patients.MethodsAn extensive search of the major electronic databases was conducted to identify all studies that reported relevant data on the number of PTG per patient and location of PTG. The data was extracted from the eligible studies and pooled into a meta-analysis.ResultsThe overall analysis of 26 studies (n = 7005 patients; n = 23,519 PTG) on the number of PTG showed that 81.4% (95% CI 65.4-85.8) of patients have four PTG. A total of 15.9% of PTG are present in ectopic locations, with 11.6% (95% CI 5.1-19.1) in the neck and 4.3% (95% CI 0.7-9.9) in mediastinum. The subgroup analysis of ectopic PTG showed that 51.7% of ectopic PTG in the neck are localized in retroesophageal/paraesophageal space or in the thyroid gland. No significant differences were observed between the healthy and HPT patients and cadaveric and intraoperative studies.ConclusionsKnowledge regarding the prevalence, location, and anatomy of PTG is essential for surgeons planning for and carrying out parathyroidectomies, as any unidentified PTG, either supernumerary or in ectopic location, can result in unsuccessful treatment and need for reoperation.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 30762091 · DOI · PMC6394670
Static Magnetic Field-Mediated Parathyroid Xenotransplantation Modulates Lymphocyte Migration: A Potential Immunosuppression-Free Long-Term Treatment for Hypoparathyroidism [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Static magnetic fields (SMFs) are underexplored as biophysical tools for transplant immunomodulation.
- Closing excerpt
- This biophysical strategy provides localized immunoprotection, potentially offering a drug-free alternative to systemic immunosuppression in endocrine tissue transplantation.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (163 words)
Static magnetic fields (SMFs) are underexplored as biophysical tools for transplant immunomodulation. This study investigated a 300 mT SMF as a non-pharmacological adjuvant to enhance graft survival in parathyroid xenotransplantation. Human parathyroid tissues were transplanted into Sprague-Dawley rats (n = 20) across four groups: control (G1), SMF-only (G2), transplantation-only (G3), and SMF-assisted transplantation (G4). Following 30-day continuous SMF exposure, functional and immunological assessments were performed. G4 achieved the highest systemic PTH recovery (p = 0.009) without altering intrinsic secretory capacity. Systemic cytokine profiling revealed significant IFN-gamma suppression in G4 (p = 0.0024), suggesting downregulation of Th1-mediated rejection pathways. While G2 showed pro-inflammatory increases (TNF-alpha, GM-CSF), G4 maintained baseline levels, confirming biocompatibility. IHC confirmed that SMF exposure sequestered lymphocytes to the graft periphery, preventing the diffuse infiltration observed in G3. In conclusion, continuous SMF exposure modulates the immune microenvironment by altering lymphocyte migration and IFN-gamma signaling. This biophysical strategy provides localized immunoprotection, potentially offering a drug-free alternative to systemic immunosuppression in endocrine tissue transplantation.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41972690 · DOI · PMC13072275
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Extracellular Ca2+ sensing, regulation of parathyroid cell function, and role of Ca2+ and other ions as extracellular (first) messengers [5]
- Research article Parathyroid imaging: technique and role in the preoperative evaluation of primary hyperparathyroidism [6]
- Research article 2009 EANM parathyroid guidelines [7]
- Research article Preoperative localization and radioguided parathyroid surgery [8]
- Research article Diagnostic performance of choline PET for detection of hyperfunctioning parathyroid glands in hyperparathyroidism: a systematic review and meta-analysis [9]
- Research article Systematic review and meta-analysis of the adverse effects of thyroidectomy combined with central neck dissection as compared with thyroidectomy alone [10]
References
- Centeno PP, Herberger A, Mun HC, Tu C, Nemeth EF, Chang W, et al.. Phosphate acts directly on the calcium-sensing receptor to stimulate parathyroid hormone secretion. . 2019. PMID 31619668 · DOI · PMC6795806
- Barczyński M, Bränström R, Dionigi G, Mihai R. Sporadic multiple parathyroid gland disease--a consensus report of the European Society of Endocrine Surgeons (ESES). . 2015. PMID 26542689 · DOI · PMC4747992
- Taterra D, Wong LM, Vikse J, Sanna B, Pękala P, Walocha J, et al.. The prevalence and anatomy of parathyroid glands: a meta-analysis with implications for parathyroid surgery. . 2019. PMID 30762091 · DOI · PMC6394670
- Tuncer AA, Bozdağ G, Hacıhasanoğlu E, Karabıyık Acar Ö, Şahin F, Torun Köse G, et al.. Static Magnetic Field-Mediated Parathyroid Xenotransplantation Modulates Lymphocyte Migration: A Potential Immunosuppression-Free Long-Term Treatment for Hypoparathyroidism. . 2026. PMID 41972690 · DOI · PMC13072275
- Brown EM. Extracellular Ca2+ sensing, regulation of parathyroid cell function, and role of Ca2+ and other ions as extracellular (first) messengers. Physiol Rev. 1991. PMID 2006218 · DOI
- Johnson NA, Tublin ME, Ogilvie JB. Parathyroid imaging: technique and role in the preoperative evaluation of primary hyperparathyroidism. AJR Am J Roentgenol. 2007. PMID 17515397 · DOI
- Hindié E, Ugur O, Fuster D, O'Doherty M, Grassetto G, Ureña P, et al.. 2009 EANM parathyroid guidelines. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2009. PMID 19471928 · DOI
- Mariani G, Gulec SA, Rubello D, Boni G, Puccini M, Pelizzo MR, et al.. Preoperative localization and radioguided parathyroid surgery. J Nucl Med. 2003. PMID 12960191
- Treglia G, Piccardo A, Imperiale A, Strobel K, Kaufmann PA, Prior JO, et al.. Diagnostic performance of choline PET for detection of hyperfunctioning parathyroid glands in hyperparathyroidism: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging. 2019. PMID 30094461 · DOI
- Chisholm EJ, Kulinskaya E, Tolley NS. Systematic review and meta-analysis of the adverse effects of thyroidectomy combined with central neck dissection as compared with thyroidectomy alone. Laryngoscope. 2009. PMID 19358241 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
See how EvidenceLib is built. Spotted an error? Email support@evidencehelix.com.
Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.