Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (602 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Dynamic and kinetic mechanisms of exogenous chemical drug liberation; absorption; biological transport; tissue distribution; biotransformation; elimination; and drug toxicity as a function of dosage, and rate of metabolism. ladmer, ADME and admet are abbreviations for liberation, absorption, distribution, metabolism, elimination, and toxicology.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Drug Kinetics; Kinetics, Drug; LADMER; Liberation, Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Elimination, and Response; ADMET; ADME-Tox; Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Elimination, and Toxicology; ADME.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Metabolism; Pharmacological and Toxicological Phenomena
- Narrower topics
- Absorption; Area Under Curve; Biological Availability; Biotransformation; Drug Elimination Routes; Drug Liberation; Therapeutic Equivalency; Tissue Distribution; Chronopharmacokinetics; Metabolic Clearance Rate
Related concepts
- Drug Liberation
- Absorption
- Biological Transport
- Tissue Distribution
- Biotransformation
- Drug Toxicity
- Metabolism
- Ladmer
- Admet
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 359,000 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Pharmacokinetics” (counts retrieved 2026-10-29). 49,377 of them (13.8%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 137,028 records.
Reviews account for 34,462 records (9.6%) and meta-analyses for 900. Randomized controlled trials number 15,692 (4.4%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 137,028 |
| 2000-2009 | 77,878 |
| 2010-2019 | 94,717 |
| 2020 onward | 49,377 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 34,462 | 9.6% |
| Meta-analyses | 900 | 0.3% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 15,692 | 4.4% |
Method: PubMed query "Pharmacokinetics"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-29.
Reading the evidence in pharmacology
Drug evidence builds in layers: laboratory pharmacology describes how a compound acts, pharmacokinetic studies describe how the body handles it, and randomized trials test whether it helps and what harms it causes. Post-marketing surveillance and observational studies reveal rarer adverse effects but cannot prove causation. This page is educational and is not a recommendation to start, stop or change any medicine; decisions about treatment belong with a qualified clinician.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Comparative Absorption and Bioavailability of Various Chemical Forms of Zinc in Humans: A Narrative Review | 2024 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 32 | cc by PMID 39770891 · DOI · PMC11677333 |
| Biological sex differences in pharmacokinetics and adverse drug reactions | 2026 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 26 | cc by PMID 41117965 · DOI · PMC12935741 |
| A skin-permeable polymer for non-invasive transdermal insulin delivery | 2025 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 24 | cc by PMID 41261125 · DOI · PMC12695667 |
Comparative Absorption and Bioavailability of Various Chemical Forms of Zinc in Humans: A Narrative Review [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Zinc is an essential micronutrient that is needed for numerous critical health functions in the body.
- Closing excerpt
- This review of the clinical evidence suggests that zinc glycinate and zinc gluconate are better absorbed than other forms of zinc.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (148 words)
Zinc is an essential micronutrient that is needed for numerous critical health functions in the body. It is estimated that 17 to 20% of the global population is at risk for zinc deficiency, with certain groups at higher risk. The provision of supplemental zinc is a convenient and effective option for treating zinc deficiency and maintaining healthy levels of zinc. Several zinc salts are available for use in supplements. However, little information is available comparing the absorption and bioavailability of these different chemical forms of zinc. In this narrative review, we provide an overview of zinc absorption and bioavailability, discuss indicators of zinc status and risk factors for zinc deficiency, and review clinical studies comparing the absorption and bioavailability of different chemical forms of zinc in humans. This review of the clinical evidence suggests that zinc glycinate and zinc gluconate are better absorbed than other forms of zinc.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 39770891 · DOI · PMC11677333
Biological sex differences in pharmacokinetics and adverse drug reactions [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Although physiological and hormonal differences between males and females can significantly alter drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME), most current pharmacotherapeutic guidelines remain sex neutral.
- Closing excerpt
- Future research and regulatory action should promote biological sex aware pharmacological practices, encouraging routine inclusion of biological sex analyses in clinical trials.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (232 words)
Although physiological and hormonal differences between males and females can significantly alter drug absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion (ADME), most current pharmacotherapeutic guidelines remain sex neutral. The chapter aims to elucidate biological sex-specific factors across all pharmacokinetic (PK) phases, subsequent therapeutic efficacy, and adverse drug reactions (ADRs), and to highlight implications for individualized therapy including within-woman variation across the menstrual cycle and other hormonal states. This work is based on an extensive review of current literature and clinical data examining sex-specific variations across all phases of pharmacokinetics. Significant biological sex-related differences were found among all PK phases. Females tend to have slower gastric emptying, higher body fat composition, and lower glomerular filtration rates. CYP3A4 is typically more active in females, while CYP1A2, CYP2D6, and CYP2E1 show greater activity in males. In females, endogenous or exogenous hormonal fluctuation can slightly affect gastric motility, protein binding, and selected CYP activities altering clearance for susceptible drugs. In addition, pregnancy increases plasma volume and glomerular filtration with predictable effects on renally cleared drugs and selected hepatic pathways. These differences influence drug half-life, systemic exposure, and the risk of ADRs. Biological sex is a significant determinant of drug pharmacokinetics. Integrating biological sex-specific data into clinical guidelines is essential to optimize drug efficacy and minimize ADRs. Future research and regulatory action should promote biological sex aware pharmacological practices, encouraging routine inclusion of biological sex analyses in clinical trials.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41117965 · DOI · PMC12935741
A skin-permeable polymer for non-invasive transdermal insulin delivery [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Non-invasive skin permeation is widely used for convenient transdermal delivery of small-molecule therapeutics (less than 500 Da) with appropriate hydrophobicities1.
- Closing excerpt
- Thus, the skin-permeable polymer may enable non-invasive transdermal delivery of insulin, relieving patients with diabetes from subcutaneous injections and potentially facilitating patient-friendly use of other protein- and peptide-based therapeutics through transdermal delivery.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (222 words)
Non-invasive skin permeation is widely used for convenient transdermal delivery of small-molecule therapeutics (less than 500 Da) with appropriate hydrophobicities1. However, it has long been deemed infeasible for large molecules-particularly polymers, proteins and peptides2,3-due to the formidable barrier posed by the skin structure. Here we show that the fast skin-permeable polyzwitterion poly[2-(N-oxide-N,N-dimethylamino)ethyl methacrylate] (OP) can efficiently penetrate the stratum corneum, viable epidermis and dermis into circulation. OP is protonated to be cationic and is therefore enriched in the acidic sebum and paracellular stratum corneum lipids containing fatty acids, and subsequently diffuses through the intercorneocyte lipid lamella. Beneath the stratum corneum, at the normal physiological pH, OP becomes a neutral polyzwitterion, 'hopping' on cell membranes, enabling its efficient migration through the epidermis and dermis and ultimately entering dermal lymphatic vessels and systemic circulation. As a result, OP-conjugated insulin efficiently permeates through the skin into the blood circulation; transdermal administration of OP-conjugated insulin at a dose of 116 U kg-1 into mice with type 1 diabetes quickly lowers their blood glucose levels to the normal range, and a transdermal dose of 29 U kg-1 normalizes the blood glucose levels of diabetic minipigs. Thus, the skin-permeable polymer may enable non-invasive transdermal delivery of insulin, relieving patients with diabetes from subcutaneous injections and potentially facilitating patient-friendly use of other protein- and peptide-based therapeutics through transdermal delivery.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41261125 · DOI · PMC12695667
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and Drug Metabolism in Humans [4]
- Research article Overcoming skin barriers through advanced transdermal drug delivery approaches [5]
- Research article Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of microplastics in marine organisms: A review and meta-analysis of current data [6]
- Research article Advances in Nanotechnology for Enhancing the Solubility and Bioavailability of Poorly Soluble Drugs [7]
- Research article Ethosomes as Nanocarriers for the Development of Skin Delivery Formulations [8]
- Research article Influence of Ageing on the Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics of Chronically Administered Medicines in Geriatric Patients: A Review [9]
References
- Devarshi PP, Mao Q, Grant RW, Hazels Mitmesser S. Comparative Absorption and Bioavailability of Various Chemical Forms of Zinc in Humans: A Narrative Review. . 2024. PMID 39770891 · DOI · PMC11677333
- Aljohmani A, Yildiz D. Biological sex differences in pharmacokinetics and adverse drug reactions. . 2026. PMID 41117965 · DOI · PMC12935741
- Wei Q, He Z, Li Z, Zhou Z, Piao Y, Huang J, et al.. A skin-permeable polymer for non-invasive transdermal insulin delivery. . 2025. PMID 41261125 · DOI · PMC12695667
- Zhao M, Ma J, Li M, Zhang Y, Jiang B, Zhao X, et al.. Cytochrome P450 Enzymes and Drug Metabolism in Humans. Int J Mol Sci. 2021. PMID 34884615 · DOI · PMC8657965
- Phatale V, Vaiphei KK, Jha S, Patil D, Agrawal M, Alexander A. Overcoming skin barriers through advanced transdermal drug delivery approaches. J Control Release. 2022. PMID 36169040 · DOI
- Miller ME, Hamann M, Kroon FJ. Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of microplastics in marine organisms: A review and meta-analysis of current data. PLoS One. 2020. PMID 33064755 · DOI · PMC7567360
- Liu Y, Liang Y, Yuhong J, Xin P, Han JL, Du Y, et al.. Advances in Nanotechnology for Enhancing the Solubility and Bioavailability of Poorly Soluble Drugs. Drug Des Devel Ther. 2024. PMID 38707615 · DOI · PMC11070169
- Paiva-Santos AC, Silva AL, Guerra C, Peixoto D, Pereira-Silva M, Zeinali M, et al.. Ethosomes as Nanocarriers for the Development of Skin Delivery Formulations. Pharm Res. 2021. PMID 34036520 · DOI
- Ngcobo NN. Influence of Ageing on the Pharmacodynamics and Pharmacokinetics of Chronically Administered Medicines in Geriatric Patients: A Review. Clin Pharmacokinet. 2025. PMID 39798015 · DOI · PMC11954733
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-29.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.