Sneezing

Natural human exhalation flows such as coughing, sneezing and breathing can be considered as 'jet-like' airflows in the sense that they are produced from a single source in a single exhalation effort, with a relatively symmetrical, conical geometry. Although coughing and sneezing have garnered much attention as potential, explosive sources of infectious aerosols, these are relatively rare events during daily life, whereas breathing is necessary for life and is performed continuously. Real-time shadowgraph imaging was used to visualise and capture high-speed images of healthy volunteers sneezing and breathing (through the nose - nasally, and through the mouth - orally). Six volunteers, who were able to respond to the pepper sneeze stimulus, were recruited for the sneezing experiments (2 women: 27.5±6.36 years; 4 men: 29.25±10.53 years). The maximum visible distance over which the sneeze plumes (or puffs) travelled was 0.6 m, the maximum sneeze velocity derived from these measured distances was 4.5 m/s. The maximum 2-dimensional (2-D) area of dissemination of these sneezes was 0.2 m(2). The corresponding derived parameter, the maximum 2-D area expansion rate of these sneezes was 2 m(2)/s. For nasal breathing, the maximum propagation distance and derived velocity were 0.6 m and 1.4 m/s, respectively. The maximum 2-D area of dissemination and derived expansion rate were 0.11 m(2) and 0.16 m(2)/s, respectively. Similarly, for mouth breathing, the maximum propagation distance and derived velocity were 0.8 m and 1.3 m/s, respectively. The maximum 2-D area of dissemination and derived expansion rate were 0.18 m(2) and 0.17 m(2)/s, respectively. Surprisingly, a comparison of the maximum exit velocities of sneezing reported here with those obtained from coughing (published previously) demonstrated that they are relatively similar, and not extremely high. This is in contrast with some earlier estimates of sneeze velocities, and some reasons for this difference are discussed.

Microbial pathogens of respiratory infectious diseases are often transmitted through particles in sneeze and cough. Therefore, understanding the particle movement is important for infection control. Images of a sneeze induced by nasal cavity stimulation by healthy adult volunteers, were taken by a digital high-vision, high-speed video system equipped with a computer system and treated as a research model. The obtained images were enhanced electronically, converted to digital images every 1/300 s, and subjected to vector analysis of the bioparticles contained in the whole sneeze cloud using automatic image processing software. The initial velocity of the particles or their clusters in the sneeze was greater than 6 m/s, but decreased as the particles moved forward; the momentums of the particles seemed to be lost by 0.15-0.20 s and started a diffusion movement. An approximate equation of a function of elapsed time for their velocity was obtained from the vector analysis to represent the dynamics of the front-line particles. This methodology was also applied for a cough. Microclouds contained in a smoke exhaled with a voluntary cough by a volunteer after smoking one breath of cigarette, were traced as the visible, aerodynamic surrogates for invisible bioparticles of cough. The smoke cough microclouds had an initial velocity greater than 5 m/s. The fastest microclouds were located at the forefront of cloud mass that moving forward; however, their velocity clearly decreased after 0.05 s and they began to diffuse in the environmental airflow. The maximum direct reaches of the particles and microclouds driven by sneezing and coughing unaffected by environmental airflows were estimated by calculations using the obtained equations to be about 84 cm and 30 cm from the mouth, respectively, both achieved in about 0.2 s, suggesting that data relating to the dynamics of sneeze and cough became available by calculation.

The spread of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) continues to show that geographic barriers alone cannot contain the virus. Asymptomatic carriers play a critical role in the nature of this virus, which is rapidly escalating into a global pandemic. Asymptomatic carriers can inadvertently transmit the virus through the air stream. Many diseases can infect human bodies with tiny droplets or particles that carry various viruses and bacteria that are generated by the respiratory system of infected patients. This article presents the numerical results of the spread of droplets or particles in a room. The proposed numerical model in this work takes into account the sedimentation of particles or droplets under the action of gravitational sedimentation and transport in the room during the process of breathing and sneezing or coughing. Three different cases are numerically investigated taking into account normal breathing and coughing or sneezing, respectively, and three different rates of particle ejection from the mouth are considered. Navier-Stokes equations for incompressible flows were used to describe three-dimensional air flow inside ventilated rooms. The influence of ventilation rate on social distancing is also computationally investigated. It was found that particles can move up to 5 m with a decrease in concentration in the direction of the air flow. The conclusions made in this work show that, given the environmental conditions, the two meter social distance recommended by WHO is insufficient.

The photic sneeze reflex (PSR) is an involuntary sneezing response to bright light exposure, affecting approximately 25% of the population. Despite its long history in scientific literature, the underlying mechanisms remain unclear. Several theories, including optic-trigeminal summation, parasympathetic hypersensitivity, and parasympathetic generalization, have been proposed, but none have been conclusively validated. Reproducing the PSR reliably in a laboratory setting is crucial for understanding its neural underpinnings, yet the specific light parameters that trigger PSR are not well-defined. This mini-review aims to consolidate current knowledge on the light stimulus parameters (intensity, spectral composition, wavelength, duration, timing, spatial configuration) that elicit the PSR. A comprehensive literature search was conducted using MEDLINE (PubMed), Google Scholar, Google Books, and Google, employing terms related to photic sneezing in multiple languages. Articles from 2020 to 2024 were screened, resulting in 167 records, with seven studies focusing on stimulus parameters included in this review. The reviewed studies, including four case reports and three laboratory experiments, consistently support that bright light can induce sneezing in susceptible individuals. However, there is significant variability in the methodologies and outcomes, limiting comparability and indicating a need for systematic investigation. No study has yet examined the parametric relationship between light parameters and the PSR. The heterogeneity of methods and findings in the existing literature highlights the lack of standardized research on the specific light parameters that trigger the PSR. This review underscores the need for controlled experiments to clarify these relationships and improve our understanding of the underlying neural mechanisms. Existing research on photic sneezing stimulus parameters is fragmented and lacks systematic approaches. Future studies should focus on standardized, parametric investigations to elucidate the light-sensitive mechanisms of the PSR.