Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (737 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
A group of polycyclic compounds closely related biochemically to terpenes. They include cholesterol, numerous hormones, precursors of certain vitamins, bile acids, alcohols (sterols), and certain natural drugs and poisons. Steroids have a common nucleus, a fused, reduced 17-carbon atom ring system, cyclopentanoperhydrophenanthrene. Most steroids also have two methyl groups and an aliphatic side-chain attached to the nucleus. (From Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary, 11th ed)
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Steroid; Catatoxic Steroids; Steroids, Catatoxic.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Fused-Ring Compounds
- Narrower topics
- Androstanes; Bile Acids and Salts; Cardanolides; Cholanes; Cholestanes; Cyclosteroids; Estranes; Gonanes; Homosteroids; Hydroxysteroids; Ketosteroids; Neurosteroids; Norsteroids; Pregnanes
- See also
- Receptors, Steroid
Related concepts
- Terpenes
- Sterols
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 976,492 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Steroids” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 121,184 of them (12.4%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 473,574 records.
Reviews account for 79,114 records (8.1%) and meta-analyses for 6,951. Randomized controlled trials number 50,067 (5.1%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 473,574 |
| 2000-2009 | 178,044 |
| 2010-2019 | 203,690 |
| 2020 onward | 121,184 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 79,114 | 8.1% |
| Meta-analyses | 6,951 | 0.7% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 50,067 | 5.1% |
Method: PubMed query "Steroids"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in drugs and chemicals
Studies of a chemical or drug can answer very different questions: what it is and how it behaves in cells and animals, how the body handles it, and whether it changes outcomes in people. Laboratory and animal findings often do not carry over to patients, and observational studies of exposures are confounded by who uses a substance and why. Nothing on this page is a recommendation to use, avoid, start or stop any substance or medicine; talk to a qualified clinician or pharmacist about your own situation. Check the dose, the species, the comparison group and whether a patient-relevant outcome was measured.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Tubular epithelial cells promote macrophage pyroptosis through PANX1-extracellular ATP-P2X7 signaling in aldosterone-dependent renal injury | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 2 | cc by PMID 42552307 · DOI · PMC13438567 |
| Associations between serum estradiol and estrone and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers: An analysis in female participants from the European Prevention of Alzheimer's Dementia Longitudinal Cohort Study (EPAD LCS) | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 1 | cc by PMID 42733033 · DOI · PMC13572576 |
| Membrane Curvature Generation by the Caveolin 8S Complex and the Role of Cholesterol | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 1 | cc by PMID 42708673 · DOI · PMC13564364 |
Tubular epithelial cells promote macrophage pyroptosis through PANX1-extracellular ATP-P2X7 signaling in aldosterone-dependent renal injury [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Tubular epithelial cell (TEC)-macrophage crosstalk contributes to aldosterone (Aldo)-dependent renal fibrosis in hypertension.
- Closing excerpt
- Mechanism through which Aldo/MR-induced PANX1-eATP-P2X7 signaling activation promotes macrophage pyroptosis in hypertensive renal injury.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (301 words)
Tubular epithelial cell (TEC)-macrophage crosstalk contributes to aldosterone (Aldo)-dependent renal fibrosis in hypertension. Extracellular ATP (eATP) can act as a mediator of TEC-macrophage crosstalk. However, whether and how eATP functions in Aldo-induced renal injury remain unknown. A deoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA)-salt-induced hypertensive mouse model and a primary mouse renal tubular epithelial cell (mTEC)-bone marrow-derived macrophage (BMDM) coculture model were developed. To investigate the relationship between Aldo/MR and eATP signaling in TEC-macrophage crosstalk, specific inhibitors, adeno-associated virus (AAV)-shRNA and small interfering RNA (siRNA) were used. scRNA-seq analysis of kidneys from DOCA-salt mice was performed for verification. Urinary ATP levels and renal pannexin1 (PANX1, an ATP efflux channel) expression increased significantly in DOCA-salt mice, whereas the selective mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) antagonist finerenone treatment reduced urinary ATP levels, PANX1 expression, tubular injury, and macrophage-related inflammation. Inhibiting PANX1-eATP-P2X7 signaling with the PANX1 inhibitor probenecid, specifically knocking down tubular PANX1, or using the eATP ectonucleotidase apyrase or the P2X7 blocker AZ10606120 mitigated renal tubular damage and NLRP3-mediated pyroptosis in the renal cortex of DOCA-salt mice. Similarly, in mTECs, finerenone suppressed Aldo-induced ATP release and PANX1 upregulation. A luciferase assay confirmed the binding site of MR to the PANX1 transcription promoter. Coculture of BMDMs with mTECs under Aldo stimulation significantly increased NLRP3-mediated BMDM pyroptosis and migration. However, these effects were reversed by treating the mTECs with MR or PANX1 siRNA. Similar results were observed after treatment with apyrase or AZ10606120 in the coculture system. scRNA-seq analysis further identified the activation of P2X7/NLRP3-related pyroptosis pathway in macrophages from DOCA-salt mice. In conclusion, TECs play a critical role in macrophage pyroptosis in Aldo-induced renal injury. eATP is a key messenger involved in TEC-macrophage crosstalk. PANX1-eATP-P2X7 signaling mediates TEC‒macrophage interactions to exacerbate Aldo-driven renal inflammation in hypertension. Mechanism through which Aldo/MR-induced PANX1-eATP-P2X7 signaling activation promotes macrophage pyroptosis in hypertensive renal injury.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42552307 · DOI · PMC13438567
Associations between serum estradiol and estrone and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers: An analysis in female participants from the European Prevention of Alzheimer's Dementia Longitudinal Cohort Study (EPAD LCS) [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- IntroductionPostmenopausal estrogen decline may contribute to Alzheimer's disease (AD), but evidence linking circulating estrogens to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarkers remains limited.
- Closing excerpt
- DiscussionFindings suggest more consistent cross-sectional associations of estradiol with tau than with Aβ42; longitudinal findings were limited by attrition and should be interpreted as exploratory.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (169 words)
IntroductionPostmenopausal estrogen decline may contribute to Alzheimer's disease (AD), but evidence linking circulating estrogens to cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) AD biomarkers remains limited.MethodsWe analyzed 854 female participants from the European Prevention of Alzheimer's Dementia Longitudinal Cohort Study with baseline serum estradiol and estrone measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and repeated CSF amyloid-beta 42 (Aβ42), phosphorylated tau 181 (pTau181), and total tau (tTau). Models used regression for cross-sectional analyses and mixed-effects models restricted to the 187 participants with follow-up, adjusted for age, body mass index, waist circumference, and hormone replacement therapy (HRT) use. We also tested apolipoprotein E ε4 (APOEε4) and amyloid moderation and conducted sensitivity analyses excluding current HRT users.ResultsNeither hormone was associated with Aβ42. Higher estradiol was associated with lower baseline tau, especially among APOEε4 carriers, but not with tau change. In exploratory longitudinal analyses, estrone showed a modest association with slower pTau181 increase.DiscussionFindings suggest more consistent cross-sectional associations of estradiol with tau than with Aβ42; longitudinal findings were limited by attrition and should be interpreted as exploratory.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42733033 · DOI · PMC13572576
Membrane Curvature Generation by the Caveolin 8S Complex and the Role of Cholesterol [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The protein caveolin-1 (Cav1) is essential in the generation of caveolae, but the mechanism of its action remains unclear.
- Closing excerpt
- These observations lead to the hypothesis that cholesterol is enriched in caveolae not because of specific binding to caveolin, but because it can alleviate curvature stress due to its negative spontaneous curvature and its ability to rapidly flip-flop.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (267 words)
The protein caveolin-1 (Cav1) is essential in the generation of caveolae, but the mechanism of its action remains unclear. A recent cryo-EM structure revealed an 11-mer of Cav1 (the 8S complex) forming a disk with a flat membrane-facing surface, raising the question of how a flat complex is able to generate positive membrane curvature. Previous implicit-solvent and all-atom molecular dynamics simulations showed the 8S complex adopting a conical shape. Here, we simulated the complex in discontinuous membrane patches on the Anton 3 supercomputer. In a 2-μs simulation, a flat POPC membrane patch converted into a hemisphere with the 8S complex on its apex. When the complex was constrained to remain flat, the membrane patch acquired slightly negative curvature. Thus, the conical shape of the 8S complex is essential for positive curvature generation, supporting a scaffolding mechanism of membrane curvature generation by Cav1. The two recently discovered invertebrate caveolins remained flat and generated pronounced negative curvature due to interactions of lipids with the protein rim. Simulations of Cav1 in 70:30 POPC:cholesterol and other cholesterol-containing mixtures showed significantly lower curvature than in the pure POPC membrane or in an E. coli membrane mimic. This appears to be caused by cholesterol moving from the distal to the proximal leaflet. No specific binding of cholesterol to the Cav1 CRAC motif was observed, nor was significant enrichment of cholesterol in contact with the complex. These observations lead to the hypothesis that cholesterol is enriched in caveolae not because of specific binding to caveolin, but because it can alleviate curvature stress due to its negative spontaneous curvature and its ability to rapidly flip-flop.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42708673 · DOI · PMC13564364
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in heart failure: an individual patient level meta-analysis [4]
- Research article Independence of Lipoprotein(a) and Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol-Mediated Cardiovascular Risk: A Participant-Level Meta-Analysis [5]
- Research article Atherogenic index of plasma and coronary artery disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies [6]
- Research article Associations of Testosterone and Related Hormones With All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality and Incident Cardiovascular Disease in Men : Individual Participant Data Meta-analyses [7]
- Research article Systemic Postnatal Corticosteroids, Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia, and Survival Free of Cerebral Palsy [8]
- Research article Spironolactone in patients on chronic haemodialysis at high risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes (ALCHEMIST): a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial and updated meta-analysis [9]
References
- Wang C, Ma H, Xu J, Tang Y, Feng J, Yang Y, et al.. Tubular epithelial cells promote macrophage pyroptosis through PANX1-extracellular ATP-P2X7 signaling in aldosterone-dependent renal injury. . 2026. PMID 42552307 · DOI · PMC13438567
- Shin J, Muniz-Terrera G, Ritchie CW, Manson J, Plachecki S, Kirschbaum C, et al.. Associations between serum estradiol and estrone and Alzheimer's disease biomarkers: An analysis in female participants from the European Prevention of Alzheimer's Dementia Longitudinal Cohort Study (EPAD LCS). . 2026. PMID 42733033 · DOI · PMC13572576
- Vasquez Rodriguez SY, Lazaridis T. Membrane Curvature Generation by the Caveolin 8S Complex and the Role of Cholesterol. . 2026. PMID 42708673 · DOI · PMC13564364
- Jhund PS, Talebi A, Henderson AD, Claggett BL, Vaduganathan M, Desai AS, et al.. Mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists in heart failure: an individual patient level meta-analysis. Lancet. 2024. PMID 39232490 · DOI
- Bhatia HS, Wandel S, Willeit P, Lesogor A, Bailey K, Ridker PM, et al.. Independence of Lipoprotein(a) and Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol-Mediated Cardiovascular Risk: A Participant-Level Meta-Analysis. Circulation. 2025. PMID 39492722 · DOI · PMC11771346
- Assempoor R, Daneshvar MS, Taghvaei A, Abroy AS, Azimi A, Nelson JR, et al.. Atherogenic index of plasma and coronary artery disease: a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies. Cardiovasc Diabetol. 2025. PMID 39844262 · DOI · PMC11756160
- Yeap BB, Marriott RJ, Dwivedi G, Adams RJ, Antonio L, Ballantyne CM, et al.. Associations of Testosterone and Related Hormones With All-Cause and Cardiovascular Mortality and Incident Cardiovascular Disease in Men : Individual Participant Data Meta-analyses. Ann Intern Med. 2024. PMID 38739921 · DOI · PMC12768424
- Doyle LW, Mainzer R, Cheong JLY. Systemic Postnatal Corticosteroids, Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia, and Survival Free of Cerebral Palsy. JAMA Pediatr. 2025. PMID 39556404 · DOI · PMC11574723
- Rossignol P, Zannad F, Massy Z, Azizi M, Chorfa F, Coadic J, et al.. Spironolactone in patients on chronic haemodialysis at high risk of adverse cardiovascular outcomes (ALCHEMIST): a multicentre, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled trial and updated meta-analysis. Lancet. 2025. PMID 40818851 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.