Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (504 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
The region of the lower limb in animals, extending from the gluteal region to the FOOT, and including the buttocks; HIP; and LEG.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Extremities, Lower; Lower Extremities; Extremity, Lower; Lower Limb; Limb, Lower; Limbs, Lower; Lower Limbs; Membrum inferius.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
Related concepts
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 200,663 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Lower Extremity” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 34,702 of them (17.3%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 85,818 records.
Reviews account for 13,514 records (6.7%) and meta-analyses for 1,376. Randomized controlled trials number 7,795 (3.9%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 85,818 |
| 2000-2009 | 32,225 |
| 2010-2019 | 47,918 |
| 2020 onward | 34,702 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 13,514 | 6.7% |
| Meta-analyses | 1,376 | 0.7% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 7,795 | 3.9% |
Method: PubMed query "Lower Extremity"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Acute lower leg transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation increases leg blood flow and exercise capacity in patients with peripheral arterial disease | 2026 | Randomized controlled trial Design not recorded in structured metadata | 1 | cc by PMID 42479759 · DOI · PMC13394253 |
| Fibrous and membranous tissues of the tarsal tunnel; quantitative 3D anatomy using a digital microscribe | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 1 | cc by PMID 42189268 · DOI · PMC13212641 |
| Real-Time Foot Height Estimation and Activity Classification Using a Foot-Mounted IMU Implemented on a Smartphone | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 1 | cc by PMID 42197973 · DOI · PMC13211119 |
Acute lower leg transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation increases leg blood flow and exercise capacity in patients with peripheral arterial disease [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- We tested the hypothesis that two different durations of lower leg transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) increase post-TENS popliteal artery blood flow (PABF), popliteal vascular conductance (PVC), and 6-min walk distance (6MWD) in patients with peripheral artery disease (PAD).
- Closing excerpt
- Our preliminary results suggest that as little as 15 min of lower leg TENS increases leg blood flow and exercise capacity in individuals with PAD.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (146 words)
We tested the hypothesis that two different durations of lower leg transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) increase post-TENS popliteal artery blood flow (PABF), popliteal vascular conductance (PVC), and 6-min walk distance (6MWD) in patients with peripheral artery disease (PAD). Seven subjects (5 male, 2 female) with PAD (67.9 ± 7.4 years; claudication: ankle-brachial index (ABI) <0.90) participated in three randomized treatment sessions: control or bilateral TENS (3.0 Hz burst mode, 250 µs) for either 15 or 45 min. PABF (Doppler ultrasound) was measured before and after treatment. 6MWD and time/distance to claudication onset were measured 25 min post-treatment during each session. PABF, PVC and 6MWD increased after both 15 and 45 min of TENS (P < 0.05, post-TENS vs. pre-TENS baseline/control). Our preliminary results suggest that as little as 15 min of lower leg TENS increases leg blood flow and exercise capacity in individuals with PAD.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42479759 · DOI · PMC13394253
Fibrous and membranous tissues of the tarsal tunnel; quantitative 3D anatomy using a digital microscribe [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- PurposeThe aetiology of tarsal tunnel syndrome is not always clear.
- Closing excerpt
- Surgically, this may more precisely inform which tissues need to be targeted for tarsal tunnel release.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (162 words)
PurposeThe aetiology of tarsal tunnel syndrome is not always clear. Treatment commonly involves a single release of the flexor retinaculum, but post-operative outcomes are not always successful. This may be due to the lack of understanding the tissues that may compress the neurovasculature. The aim of this study was to define the tissues that separate the contents of the tarsal tunnel.MethodsFeet from embalmed body donors (n = 15; mean age = 83.9 ± 10.2 years; female = 9, male = 6) were examined. One underwent magnetic resonance imaging. All were dissected and modelled in virtual three-dimensional space.ResultsThe tarsal tunnel was divided into at least five spaces by a fibrous skeleton, formed by septae that were much thicker than previously understood.ConclusionThese data strongly suggest that the fibrous skeleton may compress the neurovasculature and may need to be considered in the diagnosis and management of tarsal tunnel syndrome. Surgically, this may more precisely inform which tissues need to be targeted for tarsal tunnel release.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42189268 · DOI · PMC13212641
Real-Time Foot Height Estimation and Activity Classification Using a Foot-Mounted IMU Implemented on a Smartphone [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Wearable sensors are transformative tools for continuous gait assessment in daily life.
- Closing excerpt
- This framework provides a practical foundation for real-time gait intervention and fall prevention applications.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (196 words)
Wearable sensors are transformative tools for continuous gait assessment in daily life. Tripping, a leading cause of falls, is closely linked to inadequate foot clearance, making accurate foot height measurement critical for fall risk evaluation. Inertial measurement units offer a practical solution for foot trajectory reconstruction; however, conventional drift correction methods such as zero-velocity updates fail to adequately address cumulative height errors. Recent kinematic constraint-based approaches improve height accuracy but remain limited to offline processing and lack simultaneous activity classification. To address these gaps, we developed a real-time, single-IMU system for continuous foot height trajectory reconstruction with simultaneous classification of five locomotion activities deployed on a smartphone. Twenty healthy adults were recruited for model training and independent validation. Level walking maintained ground reference (0.0 cm, 95% CI: [-1.8, 1.8] cm), cumulative height errors remained below 1.1 cm across ramp and stair negotiation with a mean absolute error of 0.42%, and obstacle clearance was quantified. The system achieved 96.08% overall classification accuracy with less than one gait cycle latency. Toe height was estimated through rigid-body transformation with comparable accuracy to the foot height. This framework provides a practical foundation for real-time gait intervention and fall prevention applications.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42197973 · DOI · PMC13211119
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Comparison of global estimates of prevalence and risk factors for peripheral artery disease in 2000 and 2010: a systematic review and analysis [4]
- Research article Short Physical Performance Battery and all-cause mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis [5]
- Research article Passive leg raising for predicting fluid responsiveness: a systematic review and meta-analysis [6]
- Research article A Meta-analysis of Long-term Mortality and Associated Risk Factors following Lower Extremity Amputation [7]
- Research article Risk of hand-foot skin reaction with sorafenib: a systematic review and meta-analysis [8]
- Research article Biomechanical Differences of Foot-Strike Patterns During Running: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis [9]
References
- Pellinger TK, Neighbors CB, Hefta JC, Luo PH, Suarez CB, Varlas ET, et al.. Acute lower leg transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation increases leg blood flow and exercise capacity in patients with peripheral arterial disease. . 2026. PMID 42479759 · DOI · PMC13394253
- Bruechert GK, Thorpe Lowis CG, Edwards WHB, Fogg QA. Fibrous and membranous tissues of the tarsal tunnel; quantitative 3D anatomy using a digital microscribe. . 2026. PMID 42189268 · DOI · PMC13212641
- Sharafian Moghaddam E, Hejrati B. Real-Time Foot Height Estimation and Activity Classification Using a Foot-Mounted IMU Implemented on a Smartphone. . 2026. PMID 42197973 · DOI · PMC13211119
- Fowkes FG, Rudan D, Rudan I, Aboyans V, Denenberg JO, McDermott MM, et al.. Comparison of global estimates of prevalence and risk factors for peripheral artery disease in 2000 and 2010: a systematic review and analysis. Lancet. 2013. PMID 23915883 · DOI
- Pavasini R, Guralnik J, Brown JC, di Bari M, Cesari M, Landi F, et al.. Short Physical Performance Battery and all-cause mortality: systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Med. 2016. PMID 28003033 · DOI · PMC5178082
- Monnet X, Marik P, Teboul JL. Passive leg raising for predicting fluid responsiveness: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Intensive Care Med. 2016. PMID 26825952 · DOI
- Stern JR, Wong CK, Yerovinkina M, Spindler SJ, See AS, Panjaki S, et al.. A Meta-analysis of Long-term Mortality and Associated Risk Factors following Lower Extremity Amputation. Ann Vasc Surg. 2017. PMID 28389295 · DOI
- Chu D, Lacouture ME, Fillos T, Wu S. Risk of hand-foot skin reaction with sorafenib: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Acta Oncol. 2008. PMID 18210295 · DOI
- Almeida MO, Davis IS, Lopes AD. Biomechanical Differences of Foot-Strike Patterns During Running: A Systematic Review With Meta-analysis. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther. 2015. PMID 26304644 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.