Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (489 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
An aspect of personal behavior or lifestyle, environmental exposure, inborn or inherited characteristic, which, based on epidemiological evidence, is known to be associated with a health-related condition considered important to prevent.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Factor, Risk; Risk Factor; Population at Risk; Populations at Risk; Risk Scores; Risk Score; Score, Risk; Risk Factor Scores.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Risk; Causality
- Narrower topics
- Genetic Risk Score; Heart Disease Risk Factors
- See also
- Organs at Risk
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 1,113,550 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Risk Factors” (counts retrieved 2026-10-29). 288,218 of them (25.9%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is 2010-2019 with 430,699 records.
Reviews account for 194,058 records (17.4%) and meta-analyses for 30,780. Randomized controlled trials number 26,445 (2.4%) as a share of all records on the topic.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 139,213 |
| 2000-2009 | 255,420 |
| 2010-2019 | 430,699 |
| 2020 onward | 288,218 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 194,058 | 17.4% |
| Meta-analyses | 30,780 | 2.8% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 26,445 | 2.4% |
Method: PubMed query "Risk Factors"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-29.
Reading the evidence in clinical research
Research methods determine how much a result can be trusted. Randomized trials guard against confounding, systematic reviews and meta-analyses combine many studies, and observational designs are valuable but can show only association. Reporting standards, trial registration and pre-specified outcomes reduce bias. When reading about a method, ask what problem it is designed to solve and which problems it does not solve.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Nicotine pouches and youth: emerging patterns and potential cardiovascular risks | 2025 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 7 | cc by PMID 41358246 · DOI · PMC12675456 |
| Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Alzheimer's Disease, and the MIND Diet: A Narrative Review from Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Outcomes | 2025 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 7 | cc by PMID 40732953 · DOI · PMC12299063 |
| Global multi-ancestry genome-wide analyses identify genes and biological pathways associated with thyroid cancer and benign thyroid diseases | 2026 | Meta-analysis Design not recorded in structured metadata | 6 | cc by PMID 41644669 · DOI · PMC12900643 |
Nicotine pouches and youth: emerging patterns and potential cardiovascular risks [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The rapid rise in nicotine pouch use among teens and young adults signals a shift in nicotine consumption with significant public health implications.
- Closing excerpt
- This review explores the potential cardiovascular consequences of nicotine pouch use in youth, emphasizing the urgency of evidence-based research to inform clinical guidance, regulatory action, and prevention strategies.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (111 words)
The rapid rise in nicotine pouch use among teens and young adults signals a shift in nicotine consumption with significant public health implications. Marketed as discreet and "tobacco free," these products are often perceived as safer alternatives to smoking, yet their cardiovascular risks remain largely unexamined. Emerging concerns center on the high nicotine content, efficient bloodstream delivery, and growing rates of dual or poly-use with other nicotine products. Adolescents, in particular, face heightened vulnerability due to ongoing physiological development and increased addiction susceptibility. This review explores the potential cardiovascular consequences of nicotine pouch use in youth, emphasizing the urgency of evidence-based research to inform clinical guidance, regulatory action, and prevention strategies.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41358246 · DOI · PMC12675456
Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Alzheimer's Disease, and the MIND Diet: A Narrative Review from Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Outcomes [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) are among the top 10 causes of death worldwide.
- Closing excerpt
- Therefore, long-term clinical trials are required to better understand and establish the potential role of the MIND dietary pattern in preventing and managing AD.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (225 words)
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) and Alzheimer's disease (AD) are among the top 10 causes of death worldwide. Accumulating evidence suggests connections between CVD risk factors-including hypertension (HTN), hyperlipidemia (HLP), diabetes mellitus (DM), obesity, and physical inactivity-and AD. The Mediterranean-DASH Intervention for Neurodegenerative Delay (MIND) dietary pattern has recently garnered considerable attention as a key preventive strategy for both CVDs and AD. While previous studies have examined the connections between CVD risk factors and AD, they have not thoroughly explored their underlying mechanisms. Therefore, the current literature review aims to synthesize the literature and highlight underlying mechanisms from preclinical to clinical studies to elucidate the relationship between CVD risk factors, AD, and the role of the MIND dietary pattern in these conditions. The MIND dietary pattern emphasizes foods rich in antioxidants and brain-healthy nutrients such as vitamin E, folate, polyphenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, fiber, monounsaturated fatty acids, and omega-3 fatty acids. These components have been associated with reduced amyloid-β accumulation in preclinical studies and may contribute to the prevention of AD, either directly or indirectly by affecting CVD risk factors. Despite the extensive evidence from preclinical and observational studies, few clinical trials have investigated the effects of the MIND dietary pattern on cognitive health. Therefore, long-term clinical trials are required to better understand and establish the potential role of the MIND dietary pattern in preventing and managing AD.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 40732953 · DOI · PMC12299063
Global multi-ancestry genome-wide analyses identify genes and biological pathways associated with thyroid cancer and benign thyroid diseases [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Thyroid diseases are common and highly heritable.
- Closing excerpt
- Polygenic risk scores identified individuals with aggressive ThC in a biobank, creating an opportunity for genetically informed population screening.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (153 words)
Thyroid diseases are common and highly heritable. We performed a meta-analysis of genome-wide association studies from 19 biobanks for five thyroid diseases: thyroid cancer (ThC), benign nodular goiter, Graves' disease, lymphocytic thyroiditis and primary hypothyroidism. We analyzed genetic association data from ~2.9 million genomes and identified 313 known and 570 new independent loci linked to thyroid diseases. We discovered genetic correlations between ThC, benign nodular goiter and autoimmune thyroid diseases (rg = 0.16-0.97). Telomere maintenance genes contributed to benign and malignant thyroid nodular disease risk, whereas cell cycle, DNA repair and damage response genes were associated with ThC. We propose a paradigm that explains genetic predisposition to benign and malignant thyroid nodules. We found polygenic risk score associations with ThC risk of structural disease recurrence, tumor size, multifocality, lymph node metastases and extranodal extension. Polygenic risk scores identified individuals with aggressive ThC in a biobank, creating an opportunity for genetically informed population screening.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41644669 · DOI · PMC12900643
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Global Effect of Modifiable Risk Factors on Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality [4]
- Research article Risk factors for lung cancer worldwide [5]
- Research article Long-term cardiometabolic disease risk in women with PCOS: a systematic review and meta-analysis [6]
- Research article Obesity and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors: From Childhood to Adulthood [7]
- Research article Lifestyle factors and high-risk atherosclerosis: Pathways and mechanisms beyond traditional risk factors [8]
- Research article Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Prevention: A Perspective From Developing Countries [9]
References
- Abid S, Aggarwal A, Duarte F, Sethi S, Iyengar S, Zarich S. Nicotine pouches and youth: emerging patterns and potential cardiovascular risks. . 2025. PMID 41358246 · DOI · PMC12675456
- Ataei Kachouei A, Singar S, Wood A, Flatt JD, Rosenkranz SK, Rosenkranz RR, et al.. Cardiovascular Risk Factors, Alzheimer's Disease, and the MIND Diet: A Narrative Review from Molecular Mechanisms to Clinical Outcomes. . 2025. PMID 40732953 · DOI · PMC12299063
- White SL, Brasher MS, Pattee J, Zhou W, Chapman S, Jee YH, et al.. Global multi-ancestry genome-wide analyses identify genes and biological pathways associated with thyroid cancer and benign thyroid diseases. . 2026. PMID 41644669 · DOI · PMC12900643
- Global Cardiovascular Risk Consortium, Magnussen C, Ojeda FM, Leong DP, Alegre-Diaz J, Amouyel P, et al.. Global Effect of Modifiable Risk Factors on Cardiovascular Disease and Mortality. N Engl J Med. 2023. PMID 37632466 · DOI · PMC10589462
- Malhotra J, Malvezzi M, Negri E, La Vecchia C, Boffetta P. Risk factors for lung cancer worldwide. Eur Respir J. 2016. PMID 27174888 · DOI
- Wekker V, van Dammen L, Koning A, Heida KY, Painter RC, Limpens J, et al.. Long-term cardiometabolic disease risk in women with PCOS: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Hum Reprod Update. 2020. PMID 32995872 · DOI · PMC7600286
- Drozdz D, Alvarez-Pitti J, Wójcik M, Borghi C, Gabbianelli R, Mazur A, et al.. Obesity and Cardiometabolic Risk Factors: From Childhood to Adulthood. Nutrients. 2021. PMID 34836431 · DOI · PMC8624977
- Lechner K, von Schacky C, McKenzie AL, Worm N, Nixdorff U, Lechner B, et al.. Lifestyle factors and high-risk atherosclerosis: Pathways and mechanisms beyond traditional risk factors. Eur J Prev Cardiol. 2020. PMID 31408370 · DOI · PMC7065445
- Teo KK, Rafiq T. Cardiovascular Risk Factors and Prevention: A Perspective From Developing Countries. Can J Cardiol. 2021. PMID 33610690 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-29.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.