Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 4 complete abstracts (700 words), 10 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
One of the three ossicles of the middle ear. It transmits sound vibrations from the incus to the internal ear (Ear, Internal see labyrinth).
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Ear Ossicles
Related concepts
- Incus
- Labyrinth
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 1,776 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Stapes” (counts retrieved 2026-10-31). 224 of them (12.6%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is through 1999 with 877 records.
Reviews account for 69 records (3.9%) and meta-analyses for 8. Randomized controlled trials number 5 (0.3%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 877 |
| 2000-2009 | 310 |
| 2010-2019 | 365 |
| 2020 onward | 224 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 69 | 3.9% |
| Meta-analyses | 8 | 0.5% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 5 | 0.3% |
Method: PubMed query "Stapes"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-10-31.
Reading the evidence in anatomy and physiology
Anatomy describes how body structures are built and physiology describes how they normally work, so most findings here are descriptive or mechanistic rather than evidence about treatment. Much of what is known comes from dissection, imaging, tissue studies and experiments in animals, and measurements in healthy volunteers can differ from those in people with disease or at different ages. Normal ranges vary between individuals and populations. Check whether a result was measured in people or in another species, the age and health of the participants, and the method used.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| In situ motions of individual inner-hair-cell stereocilia from stapes stimulation in adult mice | 2021 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 21 | cc by PMID 34381157 · DOI · PMC8357788 |
| The Stapes of Gomphodont Cynodonts: Insights into the Middle Ear Structure of Non-Mammaliaform Cynodonts | 2015 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 9 | cc by PMID 26176619 · DOI · PMC4503721 |
| Persistent Stapedial Artery, Oval Window Atresia and Congenital Stapes Agenesis-Case Report | 2023 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 8 | cc by PMID 36984462 · DOI · PMC10059694 |
| The quantitative and qualitative histomorphological structure of human stapes footplate | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 0 | cc by PMID 41857134 · DOI · PMC13004908 |
In situ motions of individual inner-hair-cell stereocilia from stapes stimulation in adult mice [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- In vertebrate hearing organs, mechanical vibrations are converted to ionic currents through mechanoelectrical-transduction (MET) channels.
- Closing excerpt
- We have found that the OoC rotates about the base of the inner pillar cell, the hair bundle rotates about its base and lags behind the motion of the apical surface of the cell, and the individual stereocilia move semi-independently within a given hair bundle.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (148 words)
In vertebrate hearing organs, mechanical vibrations are converted to ionic currents through mechanoelectrical-transduction (MET) channels. Concerted stereocilia motion produces an ensemble MET current driving the hair-cell receptor potential. Mammalian cochleae are unique in that the tuning of sensory cells is determined by their mechanical environment and the mode of hair-bundle stimulation that their environment creates. However, little is known about the in situ intra-hair-bundle motions of stereocilia relative to one another, or to their environment. In this study, high-speed imaging allowed the stereocilium and cell-body motions of inner hair cells to be monitored in an ex vivo organ of Corti (OoC) mouse preparation. We have found that the OoC rotates about the base of the inner pillar cell, the hair bundle rotates about its base and lags behind the motion of the apical surface of the cell, and the individual stereocilia move semi-independently within a given hair bundle.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 34381157 · DOI · PMC8357788
The Stapes of Gomphodont Cynodonts: Insights into the Middle Ear Structure of Non-Mammaliaform Cynodonts [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- The stapes is known in several non-mammaliaform cynodonts, although it has only been cursorily studied.
- Closing excerpt
- Our analysis results in a better understanding of the auditory system in basal cynodonts and its evolution, highlighting the variability of the stapedial anatomy.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (201 words)
The stapes is known in several non-mammaliaform cynodonts, although it has only been cursorily studied. Here we thoroughly analyze the stapedial anatomy of several basal cynodonts in a phylogenetic framework. Our study shows that the stapedial anatomy is more variable than previously thought. The morphological variation of the stapes led to the recognition of 11 phylogenetic characters that were included in a total evidence data matrix centered in the analysis of gomphodont cynodonts. Stapes morphology does not provide evidence to suggest a direct connection between the stapes and a postquadrate tympanic membrane (if present) and the hypothesis of a dorsal process as the site of attachment of a small ligament or the stapedial muscle is supported. The re-evaluation of the theories concerning the position of the tympanic membrane in non-mammaliaform cynodonts allowed us to conclude that the hypothetical postquadrate tympanic membrane associated with the squamosal sulcus is at best relictual and most likely non-functional (not connected with the stapes). The sound waves were most likely transmitted to the stapes from a postdentary tympanic membrane through the quadrate. Our analysis results in a better understanding of the auditory system in basal cynodonts and its evolution, highlighting the variability of the stapedial anatomy.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 26176619 · DOI · PMC4503721
Persistent Stapedial Artery, Oval Window Atresia and Congenital Stapes Agenesis-Case Report [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Background: The persistent stapedial artery (PSA) is a rare congenital vascular malformation involving the middle ear.
- Closing excerpt
- Conclusion: Stapedial artery is a rare anatomical middle ear abnormality that can prevent proper surgical hearing restoration and can be associated with other simultaneous temporal bone malformations.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (150 words)
Background: The persistent stapedial artery (PSA) is a rare congenital vascular malformation involving the middle ear. It is usually associated with pulsatile tinnitus and/or conductive hearing loss and can account for multiple risks during middle ear surgery. Case Report: we present a case of a 9-year-old male child with conductive hearing loss and persistent stapedial artery in his right ear, who was admitted to our ENT Department for hearing loss. During surgery, we discovered PSA along with congenital stapes agenesis and oval window atresia, as well as an abnormal trajectory of the mastoid segment of the facial nerve. After ossicular reconstruction (transcanal total ossicular replacement prosthesis) with cochleostomy, no surgical complications were recorded and hearing improvement was monitored by pre- and postoperative audiometry. Conclusion: Stapedial artery is a rare anatomical middle ear abnormality that can prevent proper surgical hearing restoration and can be associated with other simultaneous temporal bone malformations.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 36984462 · DOI · PMC10059694
The quantitative and qualitative histomorphological structure of human stapes footplate [4]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- This study analyzes the histomorphology of human stapes footplates, focusing on the footplate (FP), to enhance reconstructive otosurgery.
- Closing excerpt
- The findings provide critical insights into prosthetic coupling sites and support the development of optimized reconstructive strategies in middle ear surgery.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (201 words)
This study analyzes the histomorphology of human stapes footplates, focusing on the footplate (FP), to enhance reconstructive otosurgery. Seven human stapes specimens obtained during pathological dissections were histologically processed. Tissue layer thicknesses (bone and cartilage) were measured at five points in longitudinal sections and three points in cross sections. Additional analyses of surrounding tissue area up to 100 μm from each point were conducted. A total of 1400 individual measurements were included in the analysis of the human FP, comprising 350 measurements each for cartilage and bone layer thickness, as well as the determined cartilage and bone areas. The FP consisted of a flat epithelial layer, a bone layer facing the tympanic cavity, and a cartilage layer. The central total thickness was 118.06 μm, increasing by 36% toward the periphery. Bone composition was 40% centrally and larger peripherally at 56%. Cross sections showed more homogeneous distribution, with a total thickness of 73.44 μm and 42% bone. This first detailed qualitative and quantitative topographical tissue analysis of the FP confirms a bilayered bone-cartilage structure with increasing bone thickness toward the periphery. The findings provide critical insights into prosthetic coupling sites and support the development of optimized reconstructive strategies in middle ear surgery.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41857134 · DOI · PMC13004908
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Hyperacusis: review and clinical guidelines [5]
- Research article Imaging of the windows of the temporal bone [6]
- Research article Persistent stapedial arteries in human: from phylogeny to surgical consequences [7]
- Research article Isolated congenital stapes ankylosis: surgical results in 32 ears and a review of the literature [8]
- Research article The incudostapedial joint angle: implications for stapes surgery prosthesis selection and crimping [9]
- Research article Further clinical and sensorial delineation of Schinzel-Giedion syndrome: report of two cases [10]
References
- Wang Y, Steele CR, Puria S, Ricci AJ. In situ motions of individual inner-hair-cell stereocilia from stapes stimulation in adult mice. . 2021. PMID 34381157 · DOI · PMC8357788
- Gaetano LC, Abdala F. The Stapes of Gomphodont Cynodonts: Insights into the Middle Ear Structure of Non-Mammaliaform Cynodonts. . 2015. PMID 26176619 · DOI · PMC4503721
- Gheorghe DC, Epure V, Oprea D, Zamfir-Chiru-Anton A. Persistent Stapedial Artery, Oval Window Atresia and Congenital Stapes Agenesis-Case Report. . 2023. PMID 36984462 · DOI · PMC10059694
- Kemper M, Türkeli E, Kluge A, Günther SI, Zahnert T, Neudert M. The quantitative and qualitative histomorphological structure of human stapes footplate. . 2026. PMID 41857134 · DOI · PMC13004908
- Katzenell U, Segal S. Hyperacusis: review and clinical guidelines. Otol Neurotol. 2001. PMID 11347634 · DOI
- Veillon F, Riehm S, Emachescu B, Haba D, Roedlich MN, Greget M, et al.. Imaging of the windows of the temporal bone. Semin Ultrasound CT MR. 2001. PMID 11451100 · DOI
- Hitier M, Zhang M, Labrousse M, Barbier C, Patron V, Moreau S. Persistent stapedial arteries in human: from phylogeny to surgical consequences. Surg Radiol Anat. 2013. PMID 23640742 · DOI
- Teunissen B, Cremers WR, Huygen PL, Pouwels TP. Isolated congenital stapes ankylosis: surgical results in 32 ears and a review of the literature. Laryngoscope. 1990. PMID 2243529 · DOI
- Skinner M, Honrado C, Prasad M, Kent HN, Selesnick SH. The incudostapedial joint angle: implications for stapes surgery prosthesis selection and crimping. Laryngoscope. 2003. PMID 12671422 · DOI
- Minn D, Christmann D, De Saint-Martin A, Alembik Y, Eliot M, Mack G, et al.. Further clinical and sensorial delineation of Schinzel-Giedion syndrome: report of two cases. Am J Med Genet. 2002. PMID 11977181 · DOI
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-10-31; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-10-31.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.