Data, Sampling, and Variation in Data and Sampling

Learning objectives

Data may come from a population or from a sample. Lowercase letters like $x$ or $y$ generally are used to represent data values. Most data can be put into the following categories:

• Qualitative
• Quantitative

Qualitative data are the result of categorizing or describing attributes of a population. Qualitative data are also often called categorical data. Hair color, blood type, ethnic group, the car a person drives, and the street a person lives on are examples of qualitative data. Qualitative data are generally described by words or letters. For instance, hair color might be black, dark brown, light brown, blonde, gray, or red. Blood type might be AB+, O–, or B+. Researchers often prefer to use quantitative data over qualitative data because it lends itself more easily to mathematical analysis. For example, it does not make sense to find an average hair color or blood type.

Quantitative data are always numbers. Quantitative data are the result of counting or measuring attributes of a population. Amount of money, pulse rate, weight, number of people living in your town, and number of students who take statistics are examples of quantitative data. Quantitative data may be either discrete or continuous.

All data that are the result of counting are called quantitative discrete data. These data take on only certain numerical values. If you count the number of phone calls you receive for each day of the week, you might get values such as zero, one, two, or three.

Data that are not only made up of counting numbers, but that may include fractions, decimals, or irrational numbers, are called quantitative continuous data. Continuous data are often the results of measurements like lengths, weights, or times. A list of the lengths in minutes for all the phone calls that you make in a week, with numbers like 2.4, 7.5, or 11.0, would be quantitative continuous data.

Data Sample of Quantitative Discrete Data

The data are the number of books students carry in their backpacks. You sample five students. Two students carry three books, one student carries four books, one student carries two books, and one student carries one book. The numbers of books, 3, 4, 2, and 1, are the quantitative discrete data.

Data Sample of Quantitative Continuous Data

The data are the weights of backpacks with books in them. You sample the same five students. The weights, in pounds, of their backpacks are 6.2, 7, 6.8, 9.1, 4.3. Notice that backpacks carrying three books can have different weights. Weights are quantitative continuous data.

You go to the supermarket and purchase three cans of soup (19 ounces tomato bisque, 14.1 ounces lentil, and 19 ounces Italian wedding), two packages of nuts (walnuts and peanuts), four different kinds of vegetable (broccoli, cauliflower, spinach, and carrots), and two desserts (16 ounces pistachio ice cream and 32 ounces chocolate chip cookies).

Try to identify additional data sets in this example.

The data are the colors of backpacks. Again, you sample the same five students. One student has a red backpack, two students have black backpacks, one student has a green backpack, and one student has a gray backpack. The colors red, black, black, green, and gray are qualitative data.

Qualitative Data Discussion

Below are tables comparing the number of part-time and full-time students at De Anza College and Foothill College enrolled for the spring 2010 quarter. The tables display counts, frequencies, and percentages or proportions, relative frequencies. For instance, to calculate the percentage of part time students at De Anza College, divide 9,200/22,496 to get .4089. Round to the nearest thousandth—third decimal place and then multiply by 100 to get the percentage, which is 40.9 percent.

So, the percent columns make comparing the same categories in the colleges easier. Displaying percentages along with the numbers is often helpful, but it is particularly important when comparing sets of data that do not have the same totals, such as the total enrollments for both colleges in this example. Notice how much larger the percentage for part-time students at Foothill College is compared to De Anza College.

Tables are a good way of organizing and displaying data. But graphs can be even more helpful in understanding the data.

Two graphs that are used to display qualitative data are pie charts and bar graphs.

In a pie chart, categories of data are shown by wedges in a circle that represent the percent of individuals/items in each category. We use pie charts when we want to show parts of a whole.

In a bar graph, the length of the bar for each category represents the number or percent of individuals in each category. Bars may be vertical or horizontal. We use bar graphs when we want to compare categories or show changes over time.

A Pareto chart consists of bars that are sorted into order by category size (largest to smallest).

Look at ch01_mod02_fig003 and ch01_mod02_fig004 and determine which graph (pie or bar) you think displays the comparisons better.

It is a good idea to look at a variety of graphs to see which is the most helpful in displaying the data. We might make different choices of what we think is the best graph depending on the data and the context. Our choice also depends on what we are using the data for.

Marginal Distributions in Two-Way Tables

Below is a two-way table, also called a contingency table, showing the favorite sports for 50 adults: 20 women and 30 men.

This is a two-way table because it displays information about two categorical variables, in this case, gender and sports. Data of this type (two variable data) are referred to as bivariate data. Because the data represent a count, or tally, of choices, it is a two-way frequency table. The entries in the total row and the total column represent marginal frequencies or marginal distributions. Note—The term marginal distributions gets its name from the fact that the distributions are found in the margins of frequency distribution tables. Marginal distributions may be given as a fraction or decimal: For example, the total for men could be given as .6 or 3/5 since $30/50=.6=3/5.$ Marginal distributions require bivariate data and only focus on one of the variables represented in the table. In other words, the reason 20 is a marginal frequency in this two-way table is because it represents the margin or portion of the total population that is women (20/50). The reason 25 is a marginal frequency is because it represents the portion of those sampled who favor football (25/50). Note: The values that make up the body of the table (e.g., 20, 8, 2) are called joint frequencies.

Conditional Distributions in Two-Way Tables

The distinction between a marginal distribution and a conditional distribution is that the focus is on only a particular subset of the population (not the entire population). For example, in the table, if we focused only on the subpopulation of women who prefer football, then we could calculate the conditional distributions as shown in the two-way table below.

To find the first sub-population of women who prefer football, read the value at the intersection of the Women row and Football column which is 5. Then, divide this by the total population of football players which is 25. So, the subpopulation of football players who are women is 5/25 which is .2.

Similarly, to find the subpopulation of women who play football, use the value of 5 which is the number of women who play football. Then, divide this by the total population of women which is 20. So, the subpopulation of women who play football is 5/20 which is .25.

Presenting Data

After deciding which graph best represents your data, you may need to present your statistical data to a class or other group in an oral report or multimedia presentation. When giving an oral presentation, you must be prepared to explain exactly how you collected or calculated the data, as well as why you chose the categories, scales, and types of graphs that you are showing. Although you may have made numerous graphs of your data, be sure to use only those that actually demonstrate the stated intentions of your statistical study. While preparing your presentation, be sure that all colors, text, and scales are visible to the entire audience. Finally, make sure to allow time for your audience to ask questions and be prepared to answer them.

Sampling

Gathering information about an entire population often costs too much or is virtually impossible. Instead, we use a sample of the population. A sample should have the same characteristics as the population it is representing. Most statisticians use various methods of random sampling in an attempt to achieve this goal. This section will describe a few of the most common methods. There are several different methods of random sampling. In each form of random sampling, each member of a population initially has an equal chance of being selected for the sample. Each method has pros and cons. The easiest method to describe is called a simple random sample. In a simple random sample, each group has the same chance of being selected. In other words, each sample of the same size has an equal chance of being selected. For example, suppose Lisa wants to form a four-person study group (herself and three other people) from her pre-calculus class, which has 31 members not including Lisa. To choose a simple random sample of size three from the other members of her class, Lisa could put all 31 names in a hat, shake the hat, close her eyes, and pick out three names. A more technological way is for Lisa to first list the last names of the members of her class together with a two-digit number, as in element-621.

Lisa can use a table of random numbers (found in many statistics books and mathematical handbooks), a calculator, or a computer to generate random numbers. The most common random number generators are five digit numbers where each digit is a unique number from 0 to 9. For this example, suppose Lisa chooses to generate random numbers from a calculator. The numbers generated are as follows:

.94360, .99832, .14669, .51470, .40581, .73381, .04399.

Lisa reads two-digit groups until she has chosen three class members (That is, she reads .94360 as the groups 94, 43, 36, 60.) Each random number may only contribute one class member. If she needed to, Lisa could have generated more random numbers.

The table below shows how Lisa reads two-digit numbers form each random number. Each two-digit number in the table would represent each student in the roster above in element-621.

The random numbers .94360 and .99832 do not contain appropriate two digit numbers. However the third random number, .14669, contains 14 (the fourth random number also contains 14), the fifth random number contains 05, and the seventh random number contains 04. The two-digit number 14 corresponds to Lundquist, 05 corresponds to Cuningham, and 04 corresponds to Cuarismo. Besides herself, Lisa’s group will consist of Lundquist, Cuningham, and Cuarismo.

Besides simple random sampling, there are other forms of sampling that involve a chance process for getting the sample. Other well-known random sampling methods are the stratified sample, the cluster sample, and the systematic sample.

To choose a stratified sample, divide the population into groups called strata and then the sample is selected by picking the same number of values from each strata until the desired sample size is reached. For example, you could stratify (group) your high school student population by year (freshmen, sophomore, juniors, and seniors) and then choose a proportionate simple random sample from each stratum (each year) to get a stratified random sample. To choose a simple random sample from each year, number each student of the first year, number each student of the second year, and do the same for the remaining years. Then use simple random sampling to choose proportionate numbers of students from the first year and do the same for each of the remaining years. Those numbers picked from the first year, picked from the second year, and so on represent the students who make up the stratified sample.

To choose a cluster sample, divide the population into clusters (groups) and then randomly select some of the clusters. All the members from these clusters are in the cluster sample. For example, if you randomly sample four homeroom classes from your student population, the four classes make up the cluster sample. Each class is a cluster. Number each cluster, and then choose four different numbers using random sampling. All the students of the four classes with those numbers are the cluster sample. So, unlike a stratified example, a cluster sample may not contain an equal number of randomly chosen students from each class.

To choose a systematic sample, establish and follow a rule. The most common way to select a systematic sample is to list the members of the population and choose every $n^{\mathrm{th}}$ entry from a random starting point. For example, suppose you have 100,000 individuals in your population and you want to choose a sample of 1,000. Use a random number generator to select your starting point. Now, 100,000/1,000 = 100, so to ensure coverage throughout the list, choose every ${100}^{\mathrm{th}}$ entry in the list. When you reach the end of the list, continue the count from the beginning until you have selected the complete sample.

A type of sampling that is non-random is convenience sampling. Convenience sampling involves using results that are readily available. For example, a computer software store conducts a marketing study by interviewing potential customers who happen to be in the store browsing through the available software. The results of convenience sampling may be very good in some cases and highly biased (favor certain outcomes) in others.

Sampling data should be done very carefully. Collecting data carelessly can have devastating results. Surveys mailed to households and then returned may be very biased. They may favor a certain group. It is better for the person conducting the survey to select the sample respondents.

When you analyze data, it is important to be aware of sampling errors and nonsampling errors. The actual process of sampling causes sampling errors. For example, the sample may not be large enough. Factors not related to the sampling process cause nonsampling errors. A defective counting device can cause a nonsampling error.

In reality, a sample will never be exactly representative of the population so there will always be some sampling error. As a rule, the larger the sample, the smaller the sampling error.

In statistics, a sampling bias is created when a sample is collected from a population and some members of the population are not as likely to be chosen as others. Remember, each member of the population should have an equally likely chance of being chosen. When a sampling bias happens, there can be incorrect conclusions drawn about the population that is being studied. For instance, if a survey of all students is conducted only during noon lunchtime hours is biased. This is because the students who do not have a noon lunchtime would not be included.

Critical Evaluation

We need to evaluate the statistical studies we read about critically and analyze them before accepting the results of the studies. Common problems to be aware of include the following:

• Problems with samples: —A sample must be representative of the population. A sample that is not representative of the population is biased. Biased samples that are not representative of the population give results that are inaccurate and not reliable. Reliability in statistical measures must also be considered when analyzing data. Reliability refers to the consistency of a measure. A measure is reliable when the same results are produced given the same circumstances.
• Self-selected samples—Responses only by people who choose to respond, such as internet surveys, are often unreliable.
• Sample size issues—: Samples that are too small may be unreliable. Larger samples are better, if possible. In some situations, having small samples is unavoidable and can still be used to draw conclusions. Examples include crash testing cars or medical testing for rare conditions.
• Undue influence—: collecting data or asking questions in a way that influences the response.
• Non-response or refusal of subject to participate: —The collected responses may no longer be representative of the population.  Often, people with strong positive or negative opinions may answer surveys, which can affect the results.
• Causality: —A relationship between two variables does not mean that one causes the other to occur. They may be related (correlated) because of their relationship through a different variable.
• Self-funded or self-interest studies—: A study performed by a person or organization in order to support their claim. Is the study impartial? Read the study carefully to evaluate the work. Do not automatically assume that the study is good, but do not automatically assume the study is bad either. Evaluate it on its merits and the work done.
• Misleading use of data—: These can be improperly displayed graphs, incomplete data, or lack of context.

If we were to examine two samples representing the same population, even if we used random sampling methods for the samples, they would not be exactly the same. Just as there is variation in data, there is variation in samples. As you become accustomed to sampling, the variability will begin to seem natural.

Suppose ABC college has 10,000 upperclassman (junior and senior level) students (the population). We are interested in the average amount of money an upperclassmen spends on books in the fall term. Asking all 10,000 upperclassmen is an almost impossible task.

Suppose we take two different samples.

First, we use convenience sampling and survey ten upperclassman students from a first term organic chemistry class. Many of these students are taking first term calculus in addition to the organic chemistry class. The amount of money they spend on books is as follows:

$128, $87, $173, $116, $130, $204, $147, $189, $93, $153.

The second sample is taken using a list of seniors who take P.E. classes and taking every fifth senior on the list, for a total of ten seniors. They spend the following:

$50, $40, $36, $15, $50, $100, $40, $53, $22, $22.

It is unlikely that any student is in both samples.

Now, suppose we take a third sample. We choose ten different part-time students from the disciplines of chemistry, math, English, psychology, sociology, history, nursing, physical education, art, and early childhood development. We assume that these are the only disciplines in which part-time students at ABC College are enrolled and that an equal number of part-time students are enrolled in each of the disciplines. Each student is chosen using simple random sampling. Using a calculator, random numbers are generated and a student from a particular discipline is selected if he or she has a corresponding number. The students spend the following amounts:

$180, $50, $150, $85, $260, $75, $180, $200, $200, $150.

Students often ask if it is good enough to take a sample, instead of surveying the entire population. If the survey is done well, the answer is yes.

Variation in Data

Variation is present in any set of data. For example, 16-ounce cans of beverage may contain more or less than 16 ounces of liquid. In one study, eight 16 ounce cans were measured and produced the following amount (in ounces) of beverage:

15.8, 16.1, 15.2, 14.8, 15.8, 15.9, 16.0, 15.5.

Measurements of the amount of beverage in a 16-ounce can may vary because different people make the measurements or because the exact amount, 16 ounces of liquid, was not put into the cans. Manufacturers regularly run tests to determine if the amount of beverage in a 16-ounce can falls within the desired range.

Be aware that as you take data, your data may vary somewhat from the data someone else is taking for the same purpose. This is completely natural. However, if two or more of you are taking the same data and get very different results, it is time for you and the others to reevaluate your data-taking methods and your accuracy.

Variation in Samples

It was mentioned previously that two or more samples from the same population, taken randomly, and having close to the same characteristics of the population will likely be different from each other. Suppose Doreen and Jung both decide to study the average amount of time students at their high school sleep each night. Doreen and Jung each take samples of 500 students. Doreen uses systematic sampling and Jung uses cluster sampling. Doreen's sample will be different from Jung's sample. Even if Doreen and Jung used the same sampling method, in all likelihood their samples would be different. Neither would be wrong, however.

Think about what contributes to making Doreen’s and Jung’s samples different.

If Doreen and Jung took larger samples, that is, the number of data values is increased, their sample results (the average amount of time a student sleeps) might be closer to the actual population average. But still, their samples would be, in all likelihood, different from each other. This is called sampling variability. In other words, it refers to how much a statistic varies from sample to sample within a population. The larger the sample size, the smaller the variability between samples will be. So, the large sample size makes for a better, more reliable statistic.

References

Gallup. Retrieved from http://www.well-beingindex.com/.

Gallup. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/110548/gallup-presidential-election-trialheat-trends-19362004.aspx#4.

Gallup. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/175196/gallup-healthways-index-methodology.aspx.

Data from http://www.bookofodds.com/Relationships-Society/Articles/A0374-How-George-Gallup-Picked-the-President.

LBCC Distance Learning (DL) Program. Retrieved from http://de.lbcc.edu/reports/2010-11/future/highlights.html#focus.

Lusinchi, D. (2012). “President” Landon and the 1936 Literary Digest poll: Were automobile and telephone owners to blame? Social Science History 36(1), 23-54. Retrieved from https://muse.jhu.edu/article/471582/pdf.

The Data and Story Library. Retrieved from http://lib.stat.cmu.edu/DASL/Datafiles/USCrime.html.

The Mercury News. Retrieved from http://www.mercurynews.com/.

Virtual Laboratories in Probability and Statistics. Retrieved from http://www.math.uah.edu/stat/data/LiteraryDigest.html.

The Mercury News. Retrieved from http://www.mercurynews.com/.

Chapter Review

Data are individual items of information that come from a population or sample. Data may be classified as qualitative (categorical), quantitative continuous, or quantitative discrete.

Because it is not practical to measure the entire population in a study, researchers use samples to represent the population. A random sample is a representative group from the population chosen by using a method that gives each individual in the population an equal chance of being included in the sample. Random sampling methods include simple random sampling, stratified sampling, cluster sampling, and systematic sampling. Convenience sampling is a nonrandom method of choosing a sample that often produces biased data.

Samples that contain different individuals result in different data. This is true even when the samples are well-chosen and representative of the population. When properly selected, larger samples model the population more closely than smaller samples. There are many different potential problems that can affect the reliability of a sample. Statistical data needs to be critically analyzed, not simply accepted.

Practice

Use the following information to answer the next four exercises: A study was done to determine the age, number of times per week, and the duration (amount of time) of residents using a local park in San Antonio, Texas. The first house in the neighborhood around the park was selected randomly, and then the resident of every eighth house in the neighborhood around the park was interviewed.

For the following four exercises, determine the type of sampling used (simple random, stratified, systematic, cluster, or convenience).

Use the following information to answer the next seven exercises: Studies are often done by pharmaceutical companies to determine the effectiveness of a treatment program. Suppose that a new viral antibody drug is currently under study. It is given to patients once the virus's symptoms have revealed themselves. Of interest is the average (mean) length of time in months patients live once starting the treatment. Two researchers each follow a different set of 40 patients with the viral disease from the start of treatment until their deaths. The following data (in months) are collected:

Researcher A: 3; 4; 11; 15; 16; 17; 22; 44; 37; 16; 14; 24; 25; 15; 26; 27; 33; 29; 35; 44; 13; 21; 22; 10; 12; 8; 40; 32; 26; 27; 31; 34; 29; 17; 8; 24; 18; 47; 33; 34

Researcher B: 3; 14; 11; 5; 16; 17; 28; 41; 31; 18; 14; 14; 26; 25; 21; 22; 31; 2; 35; 44; 23; 21; 21; 16; 12; 18; 41; 22; 16; 25; 33; 34; 29; 13; 18; 24; 23; 42; 33; 29

Use the following data to answer the next five exercises: Two researchers are gathering data on hours of video games played by school-aged children and young adults. They each randomly sample different groups of 150 students from the same school. They collect the following data:

Use the following data to answer the next five exercises: A pair of studies was performed to measure the effectiveness of a new software program designed to help stroke patients regain their problem-solving skills. Patients were asked to use the software program twice a day, once in the morning, and once in the evening. The studies observed 200 stroke patients recovering over a period of several weeks. The first study collected the data in fs-idp19719008. The second study collected the data in fs-idp79550096.

HOMEWORK

For the following exercises, identify the type of data that would be used to describe a response (quantitative discrete, quantitative continuous, or qualitative), and give an example of the data.

Use the following information to answer the next two exercises: A study was done to determine the age, number of times per week, and the duration (amount of time) of resident use of a local park in San Jose. The first house in the neighborhood around the park was selected randomly and then every 8th house in the neighborhood around the park was interviewed.

Bringing It Together

Glossary

cluster sampling

a method for selecting a random sample and dividing the population into groups (clusters); use simple random sampling to select a set of clusters; every individual in the chosen clusters is included in the sample

continuous random variable

a random variable (RV) whose outcomes are measured; the height of trees in the forest is a continuous RV

convenience sampling

a nonrandom method of selecting a sample; this method selects individuals that are easily accessible and may result in biased data

discrete random variable

a random variable (RV) whose outcomes are counted

nonsampling error

an issue that affects the reliability of sampling data other than natural variation; it includes a variety of human errors including poor study design, biased sampling methods, inaccurate information provided by study participants, data entry errors, and poor analysis

qualitative data

see data

quantitative data

see data

random sampling

a method of selecting a sample that gives every member of the population an equal chance of being selected

sampling bias

not all members of the population are equally likely to be selected

sampling error

the natural variation that results from selecting a sample to represent a larger population; this variation decreases as the sample size increases, so selecting larger samples reduces sampling error

sampling with replacement

once a member of the population is selected for inclusion in a sample, that member is returned to the population for the selection of the next individual

sampling without replacement

a member of the population may be chosen for inclusion in a sample only once; if chosen, the member is not returned to the population before the next selection

simple random sampling

a straightforward method for selecting a random sample; give each member of the population a number
Use a random number generator to select a set of labels. These randomly selected labels identify the members of your sample

stratified sampling

a method for selecting a random sample used to ensure that subgroups of the population are represented adequately; divide the population into groups (strata). Use simple random sampling to identify a proportionate number of individuals from each stratum

systematic sampling

a method for selecting a random sample; list the members of the population
Use simple random sampling to select a starting point in the population. Let k = (number of individuals in the population)/(number of individuals needed in the sample). Choose every kth individual in the list starting with the one that was randomly selected. If necessary, return to the beginning of the population list to complete your sample