RL Circuits, Inductance | University Physics Volume 2

Learning objectives

By the end of this section, you will be able to:

Analyze circuits that have an inductor and resistor in series
Describe how current and voltage exponentially grow or decay based on the initial conditions

A circuit with resistance and self-inductance is known as an RL circuit. CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(a) shows an RL circuit consisting of a resistor, an inductor, a constant source of emf, and switches $S_{1}$ and $S_{2} .$ When $S_{1}$ is closed, the circuit is equivalent to a single-loop circuit consisting of a resistor and an inductor connected across a source of emf (CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b)). When $S_{1}$ is opened and $S_{2}$ is closed, the circuit becomes a single-loop circuit with only a resistor and an inductor (CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(c)).

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: Figure a shows a resistor R and an inductor L connected in series with two switches which are parallel to each other. Both switches are currently open. Closing switch S1 would connect R and L in series with a battery, whose positive terminal is towards L. Closing switch S2 would form a closed loop of R and L, without the battery. Figure b shows a closed circuit with R, L and the battery in series. The side of L towards the battery, is at positive potential. Current flows from the positive end of L, through it, to the negative end. Figure c shows R and L connected in series. The potential across L is reversed, but the current flows in the same direction as in figure b.

(a) An RL circuit with switches

S_{1}

and

S_{2} .

(b) The equivalent circuit with

S_{1}

closed and

S_{2}

open. (c) The equivalent circuit after

S_{1}

is opened and

S_{2}

is closed.

We first consider the RL circuit of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b). Once $S_{1}$ is closed and $S_{2}$ is open, the source of emf produces a current in the circuit. If there were no self-inductance in the circuit, the current would rise immediately to a steady value of $ε / R .$ However, from Faraday’s law, the increasing current produces an emf $V_{L} = − L (d I / d t)$ across the inductor. In accordance with Lenz’s law, the induced emf counteracts the increase in the current and is directed as shown in the figure. As a result, I(t) starts at zero and increases asymptotically to its final value.

Applying Kirchhoff’s loop rule to this circuit, we obtain

ε - L \frac{d I}{d t} - I R = 0,

which is a first-order differential equation for I(t). Notice its similarity to the equation for a capacitor and resistor in series (See RC Circuits). Similarly, the solution to fs-id1167131589644 can be found by making substitutions in the equations relating the capacitor to the inductor. This gives

where

is the inductive time constant of the circuit.

The current I(t) is plotted in CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Plots(a). It starts at zero, and as $t \to \infty$ , I(t) approaches $ε / R$ asymptotically. The induced emf $V_{L} (t)$ is directly proportional to dI/dt, or the slope of the curve. Hence, while at its greatest immediately after the switches are thrown, the induced emf decreases to zero with time as the current approaches its final value of $ε / R .$ The circuit then becomes equivalent to a resistor connected across a source of emf.

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: Figure a shows the graph of electric current I versus time t. Current increases with time in a curve which flattens out at epsilon I R. At t equal to tau subscript L, the value of I is 0.63 epsilon I R. Figure b shows the graph of magnitude of induced voltage, mod V subscript L, versus time t. Mod V subscript L starts at value epsilon and decreases with time till the curve reaches zero. At t equal to tau subscript L, the value of I is 0.37 epsilon.

Time variation of (a) the electric current and (b) the magnitude of the induced voltage across the coil in the circuit of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b).

The energy stored in the magnetic field of an inductor is

U_{L} = \frac{1}{2} L I^{2} .

Thus, as the current approaches the maximum current $ε / R$ , the stored energy in the inductor increases from zero and asymptotically approaches a maximum of $L {(ε / R)}^{2} / 2 .$

The time constant $τ_{L}$ tells us how rapidly the current increases to its final value. At $t = τ_{L},$ the current in the circuit is, from fs-id1167131496869,

I (τ_{L}) = \frac{ε}{R} (1 - e^{−1}) = 0.63 \frac{ε}{R},

which is $63 %$ of the final value $ε / R$ . The smaller the inductive time constant $τ_{L} = L / R,$ the more rapidly the current approaches $ε / R$ .

We can find the time dependence of the induced voltage across the inductor in this circuit by using $V_{L} (t) = − L (d I / d t)$ and fs-id1167131496869:

V_{L} (t) = - L \frac{d I}{d t} = - ε e^{− t / τ_{L}} .

The magnitude of this function is plotted in CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Plots(b). The greatest value of $L (d I / d t) is ε;$ it occurs when dI/dt is greatest, which is immediately after $S_{1}$ is closed and $S_{2}$ is opened. In the approach to steady state, dI/dt decreases to zero. As a result, the voltage across the inductor also vanishes as $t \to \infty .$

The time constant $τ_{L}$ also tells us how quickly the induced voltage decays. At $t = τ_{L},$ the magnitude of the induced voltage is

| V_{L} (τ_{L}) | = ε e^{−1} = 0.37 ε = 0.37 V (0) .

The voltage across the inductor therefore drops to about $37 %$ of its initial value after one time constant. The shorter the time constant $τ_{L},$ the more rapidly the voltage decreases.

After enough time has elapsed so that the current has essentially reached its final value, the positions of the switches in CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(a) are reversed, giving us the circuit in part (c). At $t = 0,$ the current in the circuit is $I (0) = ε / R .$ With Kirchhoff’s loop rule, we obtain

I R + L \frac{d I}{d t} = 0 .

The solution to this equation is similar to the solution of the equation for a discharging capacitor, with similar substitutions. The current at time t is then

I (t) = \frac{ε}{R} e^{− t / τ_{L}} .

The current starts at $I (0) = ε / R$ and decreases with time as the energy stored in the inductor is depleted (CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Decay).

The time dependence of the voltage across the inductor can be determined from $V_{L} = − L (d I / d t) :$

V_{L} (t) = ε e^{− t / τ_{L}} .

This voltage is initially $V_{L} (0) = ε$ , and it decays to zero like the current. The energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor, $L I^{2} / 2,$ also decreases exponentially with time, as it is dissipated by Joule heating in the resistance of the circuit.

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: The graph of I versus t. The value of I at t equal to 0 is epsilon I R. I decreases with time till the curve reaches 0. At t equal to tau subscript L, the value of I is 0.37 epsilon I R.

Time variation of electric current in the RL circuit of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(c). The induced voltage across the coil also decays exponentially.

An RL Circuit with a Source of emf

In the circuit of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(a), let

ε = 2.0 V, R = 4.0 Ω, and L = 4.0 H .

With

S_{1}

closed and

S_{2}

open (CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b)), (a) what is the time constant of the circuit? (b) What are the current in the circuit and the magnitude of the induced emf across the inductor at

t = 0, at t = 2.0 τ_{L}

, and as

t \to \infty

Strategy

The time constant for an inductor and resistor in a series circuit is calculated using fs-id1167131314951. The current through and voltage across the inductor are calculated by the scenarios detailed from fs-id1167131496869 and fs-id1167131423244.

Solution

The inductive time constant is $τ_{L} = \frac{L}{R} = \frac{4.0 H}{4.0 Ω} = 1.0 s .$
The current in the circuit of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b) increases according to fs-id1167131496869: $I (t) = \frac{ε}{R} (1 - e^{− t / τ_{L}}) .$ At $t = 0,$ $(1 - e^{− t / τ_{L}}) = (1 - 1) = 0; so I (0) = 0 .$ At $t = 2.0 τ_{L}$ and $t \to \infty,$ we have, respectively, $I (2.0 τ_{L}) = \frac{ε}{R} (1 - e^{−2.0}) = (0.50 A) (0.86) = 0.43 A,$ and $I (\infty) = \frac{ε}{R} = 0.50 A .$ From fs-id1167131423244, the magnitude of the induced emf decays as $| V_{L} (t) | = ε e^{− t / τ_{L}} .$ $At t = 0, t = 2.0 τ_{L}, and as t \to \infty,$ we obtain $\begin{matrix} | V_{L} (0) | & = & ε = 2.0 V, \\ | V_{L} (2.0 τ_{L}) | & = & (2.0 V) e^{−2.0} = 0.27 V \\ and \\ | V_{L} (\infty) | & = & 0 . \end{matrix}$

Significance

If the time of the measurement were much larger than the time constant, we would not see the decay or growth of the voltage across the inductor or resistor. The circuit would quickly reach the asymptotic values for both of these. See CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Scope.

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: The figure shows the oscilloscope traces of voltage cross the inductor. A square wave varies from minus 6 volts to plus 6 volts with a spike of 16 volts at the beginning of every crest and a spike of minus 16 volts at the beginning of every trough.

The figure shows voltage across a resistor in an RL circuit. We note that the voltage quickly reaches a constant voltage due to the time of measurement scale being much larger than the time constant.

An RL Circuit without a Source of emf

After the current in the RL circuit of fs-id1167131475595 has reached its final value, the positions of the switches are reversed so that the circuit becomes the one shown in CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(c). (a) How long does it take the current to drop to half its initial value? (b) How long does it take before the energy stored in the inductor is reduced to

1.0 %

of its maximum value?

Strategy

The current in the inductor will now decrease as the resistor dissipates this energy. Therefore, the current falls as an exponential decay. We can also use that same relationship as a substitution for the energy in an inductor formula to find how the energy decreases at different time intervals.

Solution

With the switches reversed, the current decreases according to $I (t) = \frac{ε}{R} e^{− t / τ_{L}} = I (0) e^{− t / τ_{L}} .$ At a time t when the current is one-half its initial value, we have $I (t) = 0.50 I (0) so e^{− t / τ_{L}} = 0.50,$ and $t = − [ln (0.50)] τ_{L} = 0.69 (1.0 s) = 0.69 s,$ where we have used the inductive time constant found in fs-id1167131475595.
The energy stored in the inductor is given by $U_{L} (t) = \frac{1}{2} L {[I (t)]}^{2} = \frac{1}{2} L {(\frac{ε}{R} e^{− t / τ_{L}})}^{2} = \frac{L ε^{2}}{2 R^{2}} e^{−2 t / τ_{L}} .$ If the energy drops to $1.0 %$ of its initial value at a time t, we have $U_{L} (t) = (0.010) U_{L} (0) or \frac{L ε^{2}}{2 R^{2}} e^{−2 t / τ_{L}} = (0.010) \frac{L ε^{2}}{2 R^{2}} .$ Upon canceling terms and taking the natural logarithm of both sides, we obtain $- \frac{2 t}{τ_{L}} = ln (0.010),$ so $t = - \frac{1}{2} τ_{L} ln (0.010) .$ Since $τ_{L} = 1.0 s$ , the time it takes for the energy stored in the inductor to decrease to $1.0 %$ of its initial value is $t = - \frac{1}{2} (1.0 s) ln (0.010) = 2.3 s .$

Significance

This calculation only works if the circuit is at maximum current in situation (b) prior to this new situation. Otherwise, we start with a lower initial current, which will decay by the same relationship.

Summary

When a series connection of a resistor and an inductor—an RL circuit—is connected to a voltage source, the time variation of the current is
$I (t) = \frac{ε}{R} (1 - e^{− R t / L}) = \frac{ε}{R} (1 - e^{− t / τ_{L}})$ (turning on),
where the initial current is $I_{0} = ε / R .$
The characteristic time constant $τ$ is $τ_{L} = L / R,$ where L is the inductance and R is the resistance.
In the first time constant $τ,$ the current rises from zero to $0.632 I_{0},$ and to 0.632 of the remainder in every subsequent time interval $τ .$
When the inductor is shorted through a resistor, current decreases as
$I (t) = \frac{ε}{R} e^{− t / τ_{L}}$ (turning off).
Current falls to $0.368 I_{0}$ in the first time interval $τ$ , and to 0.368 of the remainder toward zero in each subsequent time $τ .$

Conceptual Questions

Use Lenz’s law to explain why the initial current in the RL circuit of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b) is zero.

As current flows through the inductor, there is a back current by Lenz’s law that is created to keep the net current at zero amps, the initial current.

When the current in the RL circuit of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b) reaches its final value $ε / R,$ what is the voltage across the inductor? Across the resistor?

Does the time required for the current in an RL circuit to reach any fraction of its steady-state value depend on the emf of the battery?

An inductor is connected across the terminals of a battery. Does the current that eventually flows through the inductor depend on the internal resistance of the battery? Does the time required for the current to reach its final value depend on this resistance?

At what time is the voltage across the inductor of the RL circuit of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b) a maximum?

At $t = 0$ , or when the switch is first thrown.

In the simple RL circuit of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b), can the emf induced across the inductor ever be greater than the emf of the battery used to produce the current?

If the emf of the battery of CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit(b) is reduced by a factor of 2, by how much does the steady-state energy stored in the magnetic field of the inductor change?

1/4

A steady current flows through a circuit with a large inductive time constant. When a switch in the circuit is opened, a large spark occurs across the terminals of the switch. Explain.

Describe how the currents through $R_{1} and R_{2}$ shown below vary with time after switch S is closed.

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: Figure shows a circuit with resistor R1 connected in series with battery epsilon, through open switch S. R1 is parallel to resistor R2 and inductor L.

Initially, $I_{R 1} = \frac{ε}{R_{1}}$ and $I_{R 2} = 0$ , and after a long time has passed, $I_{R 1} = \frac{ε}{R_{1}}$ and $I_{R 2} = \frac{ε}{R_{2}}$ .

Discuss possible practical applications of RL circuits.

Problems

In CNX_UPhysics_31_04_Indcircuit, $ε = 12 V$ , $L = 20 mH$ , and $R = 5.0 Ω$ . Determine (a) the time constant of the circuit, (b) the initial current through the resistor, (c) the final current through the resistor, (d) the current through the resistor when $t = 2 τ_{L},$ and (e) the voltages across the inductor and the resistor when $t = 2 τ_{L} .$

For the circuit shown below, $ε = 20 V$ , $L = 4.0 mH,$ and $R = 5.0 Ω$ . After steady state is reached with $S_{1}$ closed and $S_{2}$ open, $S_{2}$ is closed and immediately thereafter $(at t = 0)$ $S_{1}$ is opened. Determine (a) the current through L at $t = 0$ , (b) the current through L at $t = 4.0 \times 10^{−4} s$ , and (c) the voltages across L and $R_{2}$ at $t = 4.0 \times 10^{−4} s$ . $R_{1} = R_{2} = R$ .

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: Figure shows a circuit with R and L connected in series with battery epsilon through closed switch S. L is connected in parallel with another resistor R through open switch S2.

a. 4.0 A; b. 2.4 A; c. on R: $V = 12 V$ ; on L: $V = 12 V$

The current in the RL circuit shown here increases to $40 %$ of its steady-state value in 2.0 s. What is the time constant of the circuit?

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

How long after switch $S_{1}$ is thrown does it take the current in the circuit shown to reach half its maximum value? Express your answer in terms of the time constant of the circuit.

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: Figure shows a circuit with R and L in series with a battery, epsilon and a switch S1 which is open.

$0.69 τ$

Examine the circuit shown below in part (a). Determine dI/dt at the instant after the switch is thrown in the circuit of (a), thereby producing the circuit of (b). Show that if I were to continue to increase at this initial rate, it would reach its maximum $ε / R$ in one time constant.

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: Figure a shows a circuit with R and L in series with a battery, epsilon and a switch S1 which is open. Figure b shows a circuit with R and L in series with a battery, epsilon. The end of L that is connected to the positive terminal of the battery is at positive potential. Current flows through L from the positive end to the negative one.

The current in the RL circuit shown below reaches half its maximum value in 1.75 ms after the switch $S_{1}$ is thrown. Determine (a) the time constant of the circuit and (b) the resistance of the circuit if $L = 250 mH$ .

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: Figure shows a circuit with R and L in series with a battery, epsilon and a switch S1 which is open.

a. 2.52 ms; b. $99.2 Ω$

Consider the circuit shown below. Find $I_{1}, I_{2}, and I_{3}$ when (a) the switch S is first closed, (b) after the currents have reached steady-state values, and (c) at the instant the switch is reopened (after being closed for a long time).

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: Figure shows a circuit with R1 and L connected in series with a battery epsilon and a closed switch S. R2 is connected in parallel with L. The currents through R1, L and R2 are I1, I2 and I3 respectively.

For the circuit shown below, $ε = 50 V$ , $R_{1} = 10 Ω,$ , $R_{2} = R_{3} = 19.4 Ω,$ , and $L = 2.0 mH$ . Find the values of $I_{1} and I_{2}$ (a) immediately after switch S is closed, (b) a long time after S is closed, (c) immediately after S is reopened, and (d) a long time after S is reopened.

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Original figure description: Figure shows a circuit with R1 and R2 connected in series with a battery, epsilon and a closed switch S. R2 is connected in parallel with L and R3. The currents through R1 and R2 are I1 and I2 respectively.

a. $I_{1} = I_{2} = 1.7 A$ ; b. $I_{1} = 2.54 A, I_{2} = 1.27 A$ ; c. $I_{1} = 0, I_{2} = 1.27 A$ ; d. $I_{1} = I_{2} = 0$

For the circuit shown below, find the current through the inductor $2.0 \times 10^{−5} s$ after the switch is reopened. The values of the components are the same as in the previous problem.

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

Show that for the circuit shown below, the initial energy stored in the inductor, $L I^{2} (0) / 2$ , is equal to the total energy eventually dissipated in the resistor, $\int_{0}^{\infty} I^{2} (t) R d t$ .

View original figure (external; image not reproduced in this text edition)

proof

Glossary

inductive time constant: denoted by $τ$ , the characteristic time given by quantity L/R of a particular series RL circuit

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