Definition and research guide
This page combines a MeSH definition, publication statistics and selected research abstracts. It is a starting point for reading the literature, not a medical textbook or a systematic evidence review.
Content available: 3 complete abstracts (590 words), 9 references. Full article text is not stored or reproduced here; follow the PMID, DOI or PMC links to read the original sources and their access terms.
Definition
Electric conductors through which electric currents enter or leave a medium, whether it be an electrolytic solution, solid, molten mass, gas, or vacuum.
Definition: NLM Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) scope note (Public domain (U.S. National Library of Medicine); attribution requested). View the MeSH record.
Also known as: Electrode; Anode; Anodes; Anode Materials; Anode Material; Material, Anode; Cathode; Cathodes.
Where it fits in the MeSH classification
- Broader topics
- Electrical Equipment and Supplies
- Narrower topics
- Defibrillators; Electrodes, Implanted; Ion-Selective Electrodes; Microelectrodes; Pacemaker, Artificial
Research landscape
PubMed indexes 162,784 records tagged with the MeSH heading “Electrodes” (counts retrieved 2026-11-04). 32,690 of them (20.1%) were published from 2020 onward, and the busiest period so far is 2010-2019 with 52,301 records.
Reviews account for 12,467 records (7.7%) and meta-analyses for 664. Randomized controlled trials number 2,559 (1.6%) as a share of all records on the topic. Randomized trials make up only a small share of this literature, so much of what is known comes from laboratory, observational or descriptive work.
Show the data
| Period | Records |
|---|---|
| through 1999 | 45,465 |
| 2000-2009 | 32,328 |
| 2010-2019 | 52,301 |
| 2020 onward | 32,690 |
Publication-type chart data
| Type | Records | Share |
|---|---|---|
| Reviews | 12,467 | 7.7% |
| Meta-analyses | 664 | 0.4% |
| Randomized controlled trials | 2,559 | 1.6% |
Method: PubMed query "Electrodes"[MeSH Terms] with publication-type and date filters, retrieved 2026-11-04.
Reading the evidence in diagnostics and medical technology
A test or device is judged by how well it detects a condition, how often it gives false alarms or misses cases, and whether using it improves outcomes for people. Accuracy depends on who is tested and how common the condition is, so a test that performs well in a specialist hospital can perform differently in the community. Check the reference standard, the population studied, the sensitivity and specificity and whether results were confirmed in a separate group.
Evidence from open-access studies
These open-access studies come from PubMed’s best-match results for this heading (papers whose main topic it is), ranked here by citation count, with one recent addition. Each abstract is reproduced in full under its recorded open licence so that you can read the authors’ own words. They illustrate the literature; they are not a systematic summary of it. Citation counts measure attention, not reliability or clinical benefit.
| Study / authors | Year | Source label / design | Europe PMC citations | Licence / source |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| The Interphase Gap Effect in Cochlear Implant Users: Biological Basis, Parameter Selection, Analytical Methods, and Quantitative Scales | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 41840299 · DOI · PMC13237389 |
| Takotsubo syndrome in the setting of cardiac pacing: A review of mechanistic and clinical perspectives | 2026 | Review article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 3 | cc by PMID 41857469 · DOI · PMC13002712 |
| A neuroprosthesis for restoring hand movement and sensation in a person with complete tetraplegia | 2026 | Research article Design not recorded in structured metadata | 2 | cc by PMID 42463883 · DOI · PMC13375563 |
The Interphase Gap Effect in Cochlear Implant Users: Biological Basis, Parameter Selection, Analytical Methods, and Quantitative Scales [1]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- PurposeThis study aimed (1) to determine the biological basis of the interphase gap (IPG) effect and (2) to identify the most informative parameters, analytical methods, and quantitative scales for evaluating the IPG effect in human cochlear implant (CI) users.
- Closing excerpt
- Stimulation level offset and the IPG effect on maximum slope are robust indicators of CN fiber counts in CI users and are unaffected by the choice of quantitative scale.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (252 words)
PurposeThis study aimed (1) to determine the biological basis of the interphase gap (IPG) effect and (2) to identify the most informative parameters, analytical methods, and quantitative scales for evaluating the IPG effect in human cochlear implant (CI) users.MethodsThe IPG effect was quantified using multiple parameters, analytical methods, and quantitative scales (three combinations using linear or logarithmic scales for the input and output variables) across three pediatric CI groups with differing cochlear nerve (CN) anatomy: children with cochlear nerve deficiency (CND), GJB2 mutations, and idiopathic sensorineural hearing loss (SNHL). All participants in the GJB2 and idiopathic SNHL groups had normal-sized CNs (NSCNs) in the test ear. Neural synchrony, a property depending on neural health, was assessed using phase locking value (PLV) and compared between children with CND and those with GJB2 mutations.ResultsThe PLV did not differ significantly between the CND and GJB2 groups, nor did it correlate with the IPG effect in GJB2 cases, regardless of parameter, analytical method, or quantitative scale. In contrast, consistent group differences in IPG effects on stimulation level offset and maximum slope of the eCAP input/output function were observed across all analytical methods and quantitative scales. The sensitivity of other eCAP measures-threshold, maximum amplitude, and overall linear slope-to group differences varied by quantitative scale.ConclusionsThe IPG effect primarily reflects the number of active CN fibers rather than their health. Stimulation level offset and the IPG effect on maximum slope are robust indicators of CN fiber counts in CI users and are unaffected by the choice of quantitative scale.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41840299 · DOI · PMC13237389
Takotsubo syndrome in the setting of cardiac pacing: A review of mechanistic and clinical perspectives [2]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Takotsubo syndrome (TTS) is a reversible form of acute cardiac syndrome usually arising in response to various emotional and physical stressors.
- Closing excerpt
- The present paper aims to focus on mechanistic and clinical implications of TTS due to cardiac pacing procedures including conventional permanent pacemaker implantation (PPI) and conduction system pacing (CSP) along with a particular emphasis on intraventricular mechanical factors as potential TTS triggers in this context.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (137 words)
Takotsubo syndrome (TTS) is a reversible form of acute cardiac syndrome usually arising in response to various emotional and physical stressors. TTS due to cardiac pacing has been an uncommon phenomenon mostly attributable to a variety of periprocedural conventional stressors including anxiety, pain and low cardiac output. Interestingly, intraventricular mechanical factors might also play a pivotal role in TTS evolution due to cardiac pacing. Notably, this phenomenon may be potentially underdiagnosed due to a variety of factors including atypical symptoms and masked electrocardiographic (ECG) changes potentially suggesting its higher incidence in clinical practice.The present paper aims to focus on mechanistic and clinical implications of TTS due to cardiac pacing procedures including conventional permanent pacemaker implantation (PPI) and conduction system pacing (CSP) along with a particular emphasis on intraventricular mechanical factors as potential TTS triggers in this context.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 41857469 · DOI · PMC13002712
A neuroprosthesis for restoring hand movement and sensation in a person with complete tetraplegia [3]
Abstract reading summary — source excerpts
- Opening excerpt
- Millions of people worldwide are living with movement and sensory impairments owing to spinal cord injury, stroke and other neurological conditions.
- Closing excerpt
- These findings demonstrate the potential of combining a sensorimotor neuroprosthesis with targeted brain and spinal neuromodulation to restore clinically relevant function in severe paralysis.
- Interpretation limits
- Verbatim excerpts from the authors’ abstract; the closing excerpt may describe a finding, limitation or recommendation. Design, population, effect size and uncertainty have not been independently extracted or appraised. Read the complete abstract and linked paper before interpreting the findings.
Read complete abstract (201 words)
Millions of people worldwide are living with movement and sensory impairments owing to spinal cord injury, stroke and other neurological conditions. Here we report a double neural bypass (DNB), a hybrid neuroprosthetic system designed to restore both immediate and lasting gains in movement and sensation after a severe, complete spinal cord injury. The DNB links an intracortical brain-computer interface with targeted and patterned neuromodulation of the spinal cord and cortex. This allows brain signals associated with movement intention to directly control the movement of the user's own hand in real time while also promoting long-term sensorimotor recovery-even after the system is turned off. The DNB system uses recurrent artificial neural networks and reinforcement learning for fine grasp control, together with patterned spinal cord stimulation and activity-informed intracortical microstimulation ('cortical mirroring') to promote neuroplasticity and durable recovery of function. In a participant with chronic C4 sensory/C5 motor complete tetraplegia, this hybrid approach enabled recovery of functional abilities including self-feeding and manipulation of delicate objects, while also producing significant and persistent improvements in elbow flexion and wrist tactile sensation. These findings demonstrate the potential of combining a sensorimotor neuroprosthesis with targeted brain and spinal neuromodulation to restore clinically relevant function in severe paralysis.
Abstract reproduced from the open-access article under the recorded cc by licence; © the authors. PMID 42463883 · DOI · PMC13375563
Key reviews and meta-analyses
The most cited review-type papers among PubMed’s best-match results for this heading, listed with bibliographic details only. Follow the links for the full text and access terms.
- Research article Risk factors for cardiac implantable electronic device infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis [4]
- Research article Clinical impact of conduction disturbances in transcatheter aortic valve replacement recipients: a systematic review and meta-analysis [5]
- Research article Subclinical device-detected atrial fibrillation and stroke risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis [6]
- Research article Cochlear implantation in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis [7]
- Research article Remote Monitoring of Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Outcomes [8]
- Research article Association of Hearing Aids and Cochlear Implants With Cognitive Decline and Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis [9]
References
- He S, Gao Z, Oleson JJ, Bruce IC. The Interphase Gap Effect in Cochlear Implant Users: Biological Basis, Parameter Selection, Analytical Methods, and Quantitative Scales. . 2026. PMID 41840299 · DOI · PMC13237389
- Yalta K, Ozkan U, Yetkin E. Takotsubo syndrome in the setting of cardiac pacing: A review of mechanistic and clinical perspectives. . 2026. PMID 41857469 · DOI · PMC13002712
- Chandrasekaran S, Wandelt SK, Jangam A, Elias Z, Ibroci E, Maffei C, et al.. A neuroprosthesis for restoring hand movement and sensation in a person with complete tetraplegia. . 2026. PMID 42463883 · DOI · PMC13375563
- Polyzos KA, Konstantelias AA, Falagas ME. Risk factors for cardiac implantable electronic device infection: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Europace. 2015. PMID 25926473 · DOI
- Faroux L, Chen S, Muntané-Carol G, Regueiro A, Philippon F, Sondergaard L, et al.. Clinical impact of conduction disturbances in transcatheter aortic valve replacement recipients: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Heart J. 2020. PMID 31899484 · DOI
- Mahajan R, Perera T, Elliott AD, Twomey DJ, Kumar S, Munwar DA, et al.. Subclinical device-detected atrial fibrillation and stroke risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Eur Heart J. 2018. PMID 29340587 · DOI
- Gaylor JM, Raman G, Chung M, Lee J, Rao M, Lau J, et al.. Cochlear implantation in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg. 2013. PMID 23429927 · DOI
- Parthiban N, Esterman A, Mahajan R, Twomey DJ, Pathak RK, Lau DH, et al.. Remote Monitoring of Implantable Cardioverter-Defibrillators: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Clinical Outcomes. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2015. PMID 25983009 · DOI
- Yeo BSY, Song HJJMD, Toh EMS, Ng LS, Ho CSH, Ho R, et al.. Association of Hearing Aids and Cochlear Implants With Cognitive Decline and Dementia: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. JAMA Neurol. 2023. PMID 36469314 · DOI · PMC9856596
About this article
- Sources
- NLM Medical Subject Headings (definition, synonyms); NCBI PubMed (counts, identifiers); Europe PMC (open-access abstracts and citation counts).
- Verification
- Every reference was resolved against PubMed on 2026-11-04; title, year and DOI matched.
- Review state
- automated source verified; no human expert review has been recorded yet.
- Version
- 1, last updated 2026-11-04.
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Evidence strength
EvidenceHelix's computed view of the study designs behind this topic: how common meta-analyses, randomized trials and reviews are, how recent the literature is, and a plain-language reading. It describes the design mix of the literature. It is not a quality appraisal of any study, and it is not medical advice.